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ThePolish People's Republic (1952–1989),[d] formerly theRepublic of Poland (1947–1952),[e] and also often simply known asPoland,[f] was a country inCentral Europe that existed as the predecessor of the modern-day democraticRepublic of Poland. With a population of approximately 37.9 million near the end of its existence, it was the second most-populouscommunist andEastern Bloc country in Europe. It was also where theWarsaw Pact was founded.[1] The largest city and capital wasWarsaw, followed by the industrial city ofŁódź and cultural city ofKraków. The country was bordered by theBaltic Sea to the north, theSoviet Union to the east,Czechoslovakia to the south, andEast Germany to the west.
TheMinistry of Public Security (UB) and later theSecurity Service (SB) were the chief intelligence agencies that acted as the secret police. The official police organization,Milicja Obywatelska (MO), along with itsZOMO squads, conducted mass surveillance and violent suppression of protests. The various crimes committed to maintain the PZPR in power, especially after theCold War intensified, included the harsh treatment of protesters, arrest of opposition leaders and in extreme cases, executions,[5] with an estimated 22,000 people killed or disappeared from 1947 to 1989.[6] Despite the numerous economic hardships, some achievements were established during this period, such as the continuing industrialization andurbanization.Universal health care was improved following global trends in medical innovation, and the population almost doubled between 1947 and 1989. Poland also maintained a large standing army, known as thePolish People's Army. In addition, units of theSoviet Armed Forces were also stationed in Poland as in all otherWarsaw Pact countries.[7]
Poland's fate was heavily discussed at theYalta Conference in February 1945.Joseph Stalin, whoseRed Army occupied the entire country, presented several alternatives which granted Polandindustrialized territories in the west whilst the Red Army simultaneously permanently annexed Polishterritories in the east, resulting in Poland losing over 20% of itspre-war borders. Stalin then imposed upon Poland a puppet communist government following the war, forcibly bringing the nation into theSoviet sphere of influence.
In compensation, Poland was granted German-populated territories inPomerania,Silesia, andBrandenburg east of theOder–Neisse line, including the southern half ofEast Prussia. As a result of these actions, Poland lost 77,035 km2 (29,743 sq mi) of land compared to itspre-WWII territory. These were confirmed, pending a final peace conference with Germany,[8] at the Tripartite Conference of Berlin, otherwise known as thePotsdam Conference in August 1945 after the end of the war in Europe. ThePotsdam Agreement also sanctioned the transfer of the German population out of the acquired territories. Stalin was determined that Poland's new communist government would become his tool towards making Poland a satellite state like other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. He had severed relations with thePolish government-in-exile in London in 1943, but to appease Roosevelt and Churchill he agreed at Yalta that a coalition government would be formed. TheProvisional Government of National Unity was established in June 1946 with the communists holding a majority of key posts, and with Soviet support they soon gained almost total control of the country.
In June 1946, the "Three Times Yes" referendum was held on a number of issues—abolition of theSenate of Poland, land reform, and making theOder–Neisse line Poland's western border. The communist-controlled Interior Ministry issued results showing that all three questions passed overwhelmingly. Years later, however, evidence was uncovered showing that the referendum had been tainted by large-scale fraud, and only the third question actually passed.[9]Władysław Gomułka then took advantage of a split in thePolish Socialist Party. One faction, which includedPrime MinisterEdward Osóbka-Morawski, wanted to join forces with the Peasant Party and form a united front against the communists. Another faction, led byJózef Cyrankiewicz, argued that the socialists should support the communists in carrying through a socialist program while opposing the imposition of one-party rule. Pre-war political hostilities continued to influence events, andStanisław Mikołajczyk would not agree to form a united front with the socialists. The communists played on these divisions by dismissing Osóbka-Morawski and making Cyrankiewicz Prime Minister.
Between the referendum and theJanuary 1947 general elections, the opposition was subjected to persecution. Only the candidates of the pro-government "Democratic Bloc" (the PPR, Cyrankiewicz' faction of the PPS, and theDemocratic Party) were allowed to campaign completely unmolested. Meanwhile, several opposition candidates were prevented from campaigning at all. Mikołajczyk'sPolish People's Party (PSL) in particular suffered persecution; it had opposed the abolition of the Senate as a test of strength against the government. Although it supported the other two questions, the Communist-dominated government branded the PSL "traitors". This massive oppression was overseen by Gomułka and the provisional president,Bolesław Bierut.
Border changes of Poland afterWorld War II. The eastern territories (Kresy) were annexed by the Soviet Union. The western territories, referred to as the "Recovered Territories", were granted as war reparations. Despite the western lands being more industrialized, Poland lost 77,035 km2 (29,743 sq mi) and major cities likeLviv andVilnius.
The official results of the election showed the Democratic Bloc with 80.1 percent of the vote. The Democratic Bloc was awarded 394 seats to only 28 for the PSL. Mikołajczyk immediately resigned to protest this so-called 'implausible result' and fled to the United Kingdom in April rather than face arrest. Later, some historians announced that the official results were only obtained through massive fraud.[10] Government officials didn't even count the real votes in many areas and simply filled in the relevant documents in accordance with instructions from the communists. In other areas, the ballot boxes were either destroyed or replaced with boxes containing prefilled ballots.
The 1947 election marked the beginning of undisguised communist rule in Poland, though it was not officially transformed into the Polish People's Republic until the adoption of the1952 Constitution. However, Gomułka never supported Stalin's control over the Polish communists and was soon replaced as party leader by the more pliable Bierut. In 1948, the communists consolidated their power, merging with Cyrankiewicz' faction of the PPS to form thePolish United Workers' Party (known in Poland as 'the Party'), which would monopolise political power in Poland until 1989. In 1949, Polish-born Soviet MarshalKonstantin Rokossovsky became the Minister of National Defence, with the additional titleMarshal of Poland, and in 1952 he became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (deputy premier).
A propaganda poster encouraging a vote for Communist policies in the "Three Times Yes" 1946 referendum
Over the coming years, private industry wasnationalised, the land seized from the pre-war landowners and redistributed to the lower-class farmers, and millions of Poles were transferred from the lost eastern territories to the lands acquired from Germany. Poland was now to be brought into line with the Soviet model of a "people's democracy" and a centrally planned socialist economy. The government also embarked on thecollectivisation of agriculture, although the pace was slower than in other satellites: Poland remained the only Eastern Bloc country where individual farmers dominated agriculture.
Through a careful balance of agreement, compromise and resistance — and having signed an agreement of coexistence with the communist government —cardinalprimateStefan Wyszyński maintained and even strengthened the Polish church through a series of failed government leaders. He was put underhouse arrest from 1953 to 1956 for failing to punish priests who participated in anti-government activity.[11][12][13]
Bierut died in March 1956 and was replaced withEdward Ochab, who held the position for seven months. In June, workers in the industrial city ofPoznań went on strike, in what became known as1956 Poznań protests. Voices began to be raised in the Party and among the intellectuals calling for wider reforms of the Stalinist system. Eventually, power shifted towards Gomułka, who replaced Ochab as party leader. Hardline Stalinists were removed from power and many Soviet officers serving in thePolish Army were dismissed. This marked the end of the Stalinist era.
The1970 Polish protests were put down by the communist authorities andMilicja Obywatelska. The riots resulted in the deaths of 42 people and over 1,000 injured.
In 1970, Gomułka's government decided to adopt massive increases in the prices of basic goods, including food. The resulting widespreadviolent protests in December the same year resulted in a number of deaths. They also forced another major change in the government, as Gomułka was replaced byEdward Gierek as the new First Secretary. Gierek's plan for recovery was centered on massive borrowing, mainly from the United States andWest Germany, to re-equip and modernize Polish industry, and to import consumer goods to give the workers some incentive to work. While it boosted the Polish economy, and is still remembered as the "Golden Age" of socialist Poland, it left the country vulnerable to global economic fluctuations and Western undermining, and the repercussions in the form of massive debt are still felt in Poland even today. This Golden Age came to an end after the1973 energy crisis. The failure of the Gierek government, both economically and politically, soon led to the creation of opposition in the form oftrade unions, student groups, clandestine newspapers and publishers, imported books and newspapers, and even a "flying university".
Queues waiting to enter grocery stores in Warsaw and other Polish cities and towns were typical in the late 1980s. The availability of food and goods varied at times, and the most sought-after basic item was toilet paper.
On 16 October 1978, theArchbishop of Kraków,Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, waselected Pope, taking the nameJohn Paul II. The election of a Polish Pope had an electrifying effect on what had been, even under communist rule, one of the most devoutly Catholic nations in Europe. Gierek is alleged to have said to his cabinet, "O God, what are we going to do now?" or, as occasionally reported, "Jesus and Mary, this is the end". When John Paul II made his first papal tour of Poland in June 1979, half a million people heard him speak in Warsaw; he did not call for rebellion, but instead encouraged the creation of an "alternative Poland" of social institutions independent of the government, so that when the next economic crisis came, the nation would present a united front.
GeneralWojciech Jaruzelski served as the last leader of the Polish People's Republic from 1981 until 1989.
A new wave of labour strikes undermined Gierek's government, and in September Gierek, who was in poor health, was finally removed from office and replaced as Party leader byStanisław Kania. However, Kania was unable to find an answer for the fast-eroding support of communism in Poland. Labour turmoil led to the formation of the independenttrade unionSolidarity (Solidarność) in September 1980, originally led byLech Wałęsa. In fact, Solidarity became a broadanti-communist social movement ranging from people associated with theCatholic Church to members of the anti-Stalinist left. By the end of 1981, Solidarity had nine million members—a quarter of Poland's population and three times as many as the PUWP had. Kania resigned under Soviet pressure in October and was succeeded byWojciech Jaruzelski, who had been Defence minister since 1968 and Premier since February.
The newWarszawa Centralna railway station inWarsaw had automatic doors, escalators and a marble fountain. It was a flagship project during the 1970s economic boom and was dubbed the most modern station in Europe at the time of its completion in 1975.
On 13 December 1981, Jaruzelskiproclaimed martial law, suspended Solidarity, and temporarily imprisoned most of its leaders. This sudden crackdown on Solidarity was reportedly out of fear of Soviet intervention (seeSoviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981). The government then disallowed Solidarity on 8 October 1982. Martial law was formally lifted in July 1983, though many heightened controls on civil liberties and political life, as well as food rationing, remained in place through the mid-to-late-1980s. Jaruzelski stepped down as prime minister in 1985 and became president (chairman of the Council of State).
This did not prevent Solidarity from gaining more support and power. Eventually, it eroded the dominance of the PUWP, which in 1981 lost approximately 85,000 of its 3 million members. Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as an underground organization, but by the late 1980s was sufficiently strong to frustrate Jaruzelski's attempts at reform, and nationwidestrikes in 1988 were one of the factors that forced the government to open a dialogue with Solidarity.
From 6 February to 15 April 1989, talks of 13working groups in 94 sessions, which became known as the "Roundtable Talks" (Rozmowy Okrągłego Stołu) saw the PUWP abandon power and radically altered the shape of the country. In June, shortly after theTiananmen Square protests in China, the1989 Polish legislative election took place. Much to its own surprise, Solidarity took all contested (35%) seats in theSejm, the Parliament's lower house, and all but one seat in the electedSenate.
Solidarity persuaded the communists' longtime allied parties, theUnited People's Party and Democratic Party, to switch their support to Solidarity. This all but forced Jaruzelski, who had been named president in July, to appoint a Solidarity member as prime minister. Finally, he appointed a Solidarity-led coalition government withTadeusz Mazowiecki as the country's first non-communist prime minister since 1948.
The Parliament amended the Constitution on 29 December 1989 to formally rescind the PUWP's constitutionally guaranteed power and restore democracy and civil liberties. This began theThird Polish Republic, and served as a prelude to the democratic elections of1991 — the first since1928.[15]
The PZPR was disbanded on 30 January 1990, and Wałęsa was elected as president eleven months later. TheWarsaw Pact was dissolved on 1 July 1991 and the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991. On 27 October 1991, the1991 Polish parliamentary election, the first democratic election since the 1920s. This completed Poland's transition from a communist party rule to a Western-styleliberal democratic political system. The lastpost-Soviet troops left Poland on 18 September 1993. After ten years ofdemocratic consolidation, Poland joinedOECD in 1996,NATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004.
The government and politics of the Polish People's Republic were dominated by thePolish United Workers' Party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR). Despite the presence of two minor parties, the United People's Party and theDemocratic Party, the country was aone-party state because these two parties were completely subservient to the Communists and had to accept the PZPR's "leading role" as a condition of their existence.[citation needed] It was politically influenced by theSoviet Union to the extent of being itssatellite country, along withEast Germany,Czechoslovakia and otherEastern Bloc members.[citation needed]
The Polish People's Republic maintained alarge standing army and hostedSoviet troops in its territory, as Poland was a Warsaw Pact signatory.[7] TheUB and succeedingSB were the chief intelligence agencies that acted as secret police. The official police organization, which was also responsible for peacekeeping and suppression of protests, was renamedMilicja Obywatelska. The Milicja's eliteZOMO squads committed various serious crimes to maintain the communists in power, including the harsh treatment of protesters, the arrest of opposition leaders and in some cases, murder.[16] According to Rudolph J. Rummel, at least 22,000 people were killed by the regime during its rule.[17][page needed] As a result, Poland had a high imprisonment rate but one of the lowest crime rates in the world.[18]
In foreign relations, the Polish People's Republic had a particularly close relationship with the Soviet Union and was within Moscow's circle of influence. However, during its existence, the Polish People's Republic maintained close relations not only with theSoviet Union, but other communist states in theEastern Bloc. It also had friendly relations with theUnited States,United Kingdom,France, and theWestern Bloc as well as thePeople's Republic of China. At the height of theCold War, Poland attempted to remain neutral to the conflict between the Soviets and the Americans. In particular,Edward Gierek sought to establish Poland as a mediator between the two powers in the 1970s. Both theU.S. presidents and the Sovietgeneral secretaries or leaders visited communist Poland.
Poland was hostile to theRepublic of China, which had retreated to Taiwan following the Communist victory in theChinese Civil War and was viewed as an illegitimate state by Poland's government. The seizure of thecargo shipsPraca andPrezydent Gottwald in 1953 and 1954, respectively, particularly inflamed tensions between the two countries.[19]
Poland suffered tremendous economic losses during World War II. In 1939, Poland had 35.1 million inhabitants, but the census of 14 February 1946 showed only 23.9 million inhabitants. The difference was partially the result of the border revision. Losses in national resources and infrastructure amounted to approximately 38%. The implementation of the immense tasks involved with the reconstruction of the country was intertwined with the struggle of the new government for the stabilisation of power, made even more difficult by the fact that a considerable part of society was mistrustful of the communist government. The occupation of Poland by the Red Army and the support the Soviet Union had shown for the Polish communists was decisive in the communists gaining the upper hand in the new Polish government.
Łódź was Poland's largest city after the destruction ofWarsaw duringWorld War II. It was also a major industrial centre in Europe and served as the temporary capital due to its economic significance in the 1940s.
As control of the Polish territories passed from occupying forces ofNazi Germany to the subsequent occupying forces of theSoviet Union, and from the Soviet Union to the Soviet-imposed puppetsatellite government, Poland's neweconomic system was forcibly imposed and began moving towards a radical, communistcentrally planned economy. One of the first major steps in that direction involved theagricultural reform issued by thePolish Committee of National Liberation government on 6 September 1944. All estates over 0.5 km2 in pre-war Polish territories and all over 1 km2 in former German territories were nationalised without compensation. In total, 31,000 km2 of land were nationalised in Poland and 5 million in the former German territories, out of which 12,000 km2 were redistributed to farmers and the rest remained in the hands of the government (Most of this was eventually used in thecollectivization and creation ofsovkhoz-likeState Agricultural Farms "PGR"). However, the collectivization of Polish farming never reached the same extent as it did in the Soviet Union or other countries of the Eastern Bloc.[22]
Femaletextile workers in a state-run factory, Łódź, 1950s
Nationalisation began in 1944, with the pro-Soviet government taking over industries in the newly acquired territories along with the rest of the country. As nationalization was unpopular, the communists delayedthe nationalization reform until 1946, when after the3xTAKreferendums they were fairly certain they had total control of the state and could deal a heavy blow to eventual public protests. Some semi-official nationalisation of various private enterprises had begun also in 1944. In 1946, all enterprises with over 50 employees were nationalised, with no compensation to Polish owners.[23][24]
The Allied punishment of Germany for the war of destruction included Polish administration over thebulk of the former German East. These lands proved to be essential for the Polish Communists, because the former German industries and farms immediately passed to state control. In fact, the former German industrial facilities doubled Poland's industrial base.[25] Economic arguments had been an essential point in the arguments presented by the Polish delegation at the Potsdam Conferencec.[26]
There is a consensus that the German eastern provinces gained by Poland were economically better developed than the lost Kresy. A recent proposal for a macroeconomic calculation of the economic consequences of the westward Shift of Poland obtained, that the German eastern provinces were valued 25,8 billionInternational Dollars, while the whole of the Kresy was valued 9,4 billionInternational Dollars.[citation needed]
Additionally, Germany was intended to transfer large-scale reparations to Poland. However, those were truncated into insignificance by the break-up of Germany into East (former Central Germany) and West and the onset of the Cold War. Poland was then relegated to receive her share from the Soviet-controlledEast Germany. However, even this was attenuated, as the Soviets pressured the Polish Government to cease receiving the reparations far ahead of schedule as a sign of 'friendship' between the two new communist neighbors and, therefore, now friends.[27][28] Thus, without the reparations and without the massiveMarshall Plan implemented in the West at that time, Poland's postwar recovery was much harder than it could have been.
Supersam Warsaw, the first self-serve shopping centre in Poland, 1962
During theGierek era, Poland borrowed large sums fromWestern creditors in exchange for the promise of social and economic reforms. None of these were delivered due to resistance from the hardline communist leadership as it would effectively require abandoning theMarxian economy withcentral planning, state-owned enterprises and state-controlled prices and trade.[29] After the West refused to grant Poland further loans, the living standards began to fall sharply again as the supply of imported goods dried up, and as Poland was forced to export everything it could, particularly food and coal, to service its massive debt, which would reach US$23 billion by 1980.
In 1981, Poland notifiedClub de Paris (a group of Western-European central banks) of its insolvency, and a series of negotiations on the repayment of its foreign debt was completed between 1989 and 1991.[30]
The party was forced to raise prices, which led to further large-scale social unrest and the formation of theSolidarity movement. During theSolidarity years and the imposition ofmartial law, Poland entered a decade of economic crisis, officially acknowledged as such even by the regime. Rationing and queuing became a way of life, withration cards (Kartki) necessary to buy even such basic consumer staples as milk and sugar.[31] Access to Westernluxury goods became even more restricted, as Western governments appliedeconomic sanctions to express their dissatisfaction with the government repression of the opposition, while at the same time, the government had to use most of the foreign currency it could obtain to pay the crushing rates on its foreign debt.[32]
Pewex, a chain ofhard currency stores which sold unobtainable Western goods and items
In response to this situation, the government, which controlled all official foreign trade, continued to maintain a highly artificialexchange rate with Western currencies. The exchange rate worsened distortions in the economy at all levels, resulting in a growingblack market and the development of ashortage economy.[33] The only way for an individual to buy most Western goods was to use Western currencies, notably theU.S. dollar, which in effect became a parallel currency. However, it could not simply be exchanged at the official banks forzlotys, since the government exchange rate undervalued the dollar and placed heavy restrictions on the amount that could be exchanged, and so the only practical way to obtain it was fromremittances or work outside the country. An entire illegal industry of street-corner money changers emerged as a result. These so-calledCinkciarze gave clients an exchange rate far better than the official one and became wealthy from their opportunism albeit at the risk of punishment, usually diminished by the wide-scale bribery of the Milicja.[31]
As Western currency came into the country from emigrant families and foreign workers, the government in turn attempted to gather it up by various means, most visibly by establishing a chain of state-runPewex andBaltona stores in all Polish cities, where goods could only be bought with hard currency. It even introduced its ownersatz U.S. currency (bony PeKaO in Polish).[31] This paralleled the financial practices in East Germany running its ownration stamps at the same time.[31] The trend led to an unhealthy state of affairs where the chief determinant of economic status was access to hard currency. This situation was incompatible with any remaining ideals of socialism, which were soon completely abandoned at the community level.
In this desperate situation, all development and growth in the Polish economy slowed to a crawl. Most visibly, work on most of the major investment projects that had begun in the 1970s was stopped. As a result, most Polish cities acquired at least one infamous example of a large unfinished building languishing in a state of limbo. While some of these, such as theSzkieletorskyscraper in Kraków, were eventually finished decades later, most were never finished at all, wasting the considerable resources devoted to their construction. Polish investment in economic infrastructure and technological development fell rapidly, ensuring that the country lost whatever ground it had gained relative to Western European economies in the 1970s. To escape the constant economic and political pressures during these years, and the general sense of hopelessness, many family income providers traveled for work in Western Europe, particularly West Germany (Wyjazd na saksy).[citation needed] During the era, hundreds of thousands of Poles left the country permanently and settled in the West, few of them returning to Poland even after the end of socialism in Poland. Tens of thousands of others went to work in countries that could offer them salaries in hard currency, notablyLibya andIraq.[34]
Bar mleczny, a former milk bar inGdynia. Thesecanteens offered value meals to citizens throughout Communist Poland.
After several years of the situation continuing to worsen, during which time the socialist government unsuccessfully tried various expedients to improve the performance of the economy—at one point resorting to placing militarycommissars to direct work in the factories — it grudgingly accepted pressures to liberalize the economy. The government introduced a series of small-scale reforms, such as allowing more small-scale private enterprises to function. However, the government also realized that it lacked the legitimacy to carry out any large-scale reforms, which would inevitably cause large-scale social dislocation and economic difficulties for most of the population, accustomed to the extensivesocial safety net that the socialist system had provided. For example, when the government proposed to close theGdańsk Shipyard, a decision in some ways justifiable from an economic point of view but also largely political, there was a wave of public outrage and the government was forced to back down.
The only way to carry out such changes without social upheaval would be to acquire at least some support from the opposition side. The government accepted the idea that some kind of a deal with the opposition would be necessary, and repeatedly attempted to find common ground throughout the 1980s. However, at this point, the communists generally still believed that they should retain the reins of power for the near future, and only allowed the opposition limited, advisory participation in the running of the country. They believed that this would be essential to pacifying the Soviet Union, which they felt was not yet ready to accept a non-Communist Poland.
The origins of Polish television date back to the late 1930s,[35][36] however, the beginning ofWorld War II interrupted further progress at establishing a regularly televised program. The first prime state television corporation,Telewizja Polska, was founded after the war in 1952 and was hailed as a great success by the communist authorities.[37] The foundation date corresponds to the time of the first regularly televised broadcast which occurred at 07:00 p.mCET on 25 October 1952.[37] Initially, the auditions were broadcast to a limited number of viewers and at set dates, often a month apart. On 23 January 1953 regular shows began to appear on the first and only channel,TVP1.[38] The second channel,TVP2, was launched in 1970 and coloured television was introduced in 1971. Most reliable sources of information in the 1950s were newspapers, most notablyTrybuna Ludu (People's Tribune).
The chiefnewscast under the Polish People's Republic for over 31 years wasDziennik Telewizyjny (Television Journal). Commonly known to the viewers asDziennik, aired in the years 1958–1989 and was utilized by thePolish United Workers' Party as a propaganda tool to control the masses. Transmitted daily at 07:30 p.mCET since 1965, it was infamous for its manipulative techniques and emotive language as well as the controversial content.[39] For instance, theDziennik provided more information on world news, particularly bad events, war, corruption or scandals in the West. This method was intentionally used to minimize the effects of the issues that were occurring in communist Poland at the time. With its format, the show shared many similarities with theEast GermanAktuelle Kamera.[40] Throughout the 1970s,Dziennik Telewizyjny was regularly watched by over 11 million viewers, approximately in every third household in the Polish People's Republic.[41] The long legacy of communist television continues to this day; the older generation in contemporary Poland refers to every televised news program as "Dziennik" and the term also became synonymous withauthoritarianism, propaganda, manipulation, lies, deception and disinformation.[42]
Undermartial law in Poland, from December 1981Dziennik was presented by officers of thePolish Armed Forces or newsreaders in military uniforms and broadcast 24-hours a day.[43][44] The running time has also been extended to 60 minutes. The program returned to its original form in 1983.[45] The audience viewed this move as an attempt tomilitarize the country under amilitary junta. As a result, several newsreaders had difficulty in finding employment after the fall of communism in 1989.[44]
Despite the political agenda of Telewizja Polska, the authorities did emphasize the need to provide entertainment for younger viewers without exposing the children to inappropriate content. Initially created in the 1950s, anevening cartoon block calledDobranocka, which was targeted at young children, is still broadcast today under a different format.[46] Among the most well-known animations of the 1970s and 1980s in Poland wereReksio,Bolek and Lolek,Krtek (Polish: Krecik) andThe Moomins.[47][48]
Countless shows were made relating toSecond World War history such asFour Tank-Men and a Dog (1966–1970) andStakes Larger Than Life withKapitan Kloss (1967–1968), but were purely fictional and not based on real events.[49] The horrors of war,Soviet invasion and theHolocaust were taboo topics, avoided and downplayed when possible.[49] In most cases, producers and directors were encouraged to portray the SovietRed Army as a friendly and victorious force which entirely liberated Poland fromNazism,Imperialism orCapitalism. The goal was to strengthen the artificial Polish-Soviet friendship and eliminate any knowledge of the crimes or acts of terror committed by the Soviets during World War II, such as theKatyn massacre.[50] Hence, the Polish audience was more lenient towards a TV series exclusively featuring Polish history from the times of theKingdom of Poland or thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Trybuna Ludu (People's Tribune) was a government-sponsored newspaper and propaganda outlet.
Being produced in a then-socialist country, the shows did contain a socialist agenda, but with a more informal and comical tone; they concentrated on everyday life which was appealing to ordinary people.[51] These includeCzterdziestolatek (1975–1978),Alternatywy 4 (1986–1987) andZmiennicy (1987–1988). The wide range of topics covered featured petty disputes in theblock of flats, work issues, human behaviour and interaction as well as comedy, sarcasm, drama andsatire.[51] Every televised show wascensored if necessary and political content was erased. Ridiculing the communist government was illegal, though Poland remained the most liberal of theEastern Bloc members andcensorship eventually lost its authority by the mid-1980s.[52] The majority of the TV shows and serials made during the Polish People's Republic earned acult status in Poland today, particularly due to their symbolism of a bygone era.[49]
Andrzej Wajda was a key figure in Polish cinematography during and after the fall of communism.
In November 1945 the newly formed communist government founded the film production and distribution corporationFilm Polski, and placed the well-known Polish filmmaker of Jewish descentAleksander Ford in charge. The Film Polski output was limited; only thirteen features were released between 1947 and its dissolution in 1952, concentrating on Polish suffering at the hands of the Nazis during World War II for propaganda purposes. In 1947, Ford's contribution to film was crucial in establishing the newNational Film School in Łódź, where he taught for 20 years. The first film produced in Poland following the war wasForbidden Songs (1946), which was seen by 10.8 million people in its initial theatrical screening, almost half of the population at the time.[53] Ford's biggest success wasKnights of the Teutonic Order from 1960, one of the most celebrated and attended Polish films in history.[54]
Allegory ofcommunist censorship, Poland, 1989. Newspapers visible are from all Eastern Bloc countries including East Germany, the Soviet Union andCzechoslovakia.
The change in political climate in the 1950s gave rise to thePolish Film School movement, a training ground for some of the icons of the world cinematography. It was then that independent Polish filmmakers such asAndrzej Wajda,Roman Polanski,Wojciech Has,Kieślowski,Zanussi,Bareja andAndrzej Munk often directed films which were a political satire aimed at stultifying the communist authorities in the most gentle manner as possible. However, due to censorship, some films were not screened in cinemas until 1989 when communism ended in Central and Eastern Europe.The Hourglass Sanatorium (1973) was so controversial, the communist government forbade Wojciech Has to direct for a period of ten years.[55] The authorities also hired or bribed film critics and literary scholars to poorly review the film. The reviewers, however, were so ineffective that in turn the film was applauded in the West and won the Jury Prize at the1973 Cannes Film Festival.[55]
The architecture in Poland under the Polish People's Republic had three major phases – short-livedsocialist realism,modernism andfunctionalism. Each of these styles or trends was imposed either by the government or by communist doctrine.
UnderStalinism in the late 1940s and 1950s, the Eastern Bloc countries adopted socialist realism, an idealized and monumental realistic art intended to promote communist values, such as the emancipation of theproletariat.[57] This style became alternatively known asStalinist Empire style due to its grandeur, excessive size and political message (a powerful state) it tried to convey. This expensive form greatly resembled a mixture ofclassicist architecture andArt Deco, with archways, decorated cornices, mosaics, forged gates and columns.[58][59] It was under this style that the first skyscrapers were erected in communist states. Stalin wanted to ensure that Poland would remain under communist yoke and ordered the construction of one of the largest buildings in Europe at the time, thePalace of Culture and Science in Warsaw. With the permission of the Polish authorities who wouldn't dare to object, the construction started in 1952 and lasted until 1955.[60] It was deemed a "gift from the Soviet Union to the Polish people" and at 237 meters in height it was an impressive landmark on European standards.[60] With its proportions and shape it was to mediate between theSeven Sisters inMoscow and theEmpire State Building inNew York, but with style it possesses traditionally Polish and Art Deco architectural details.[61][62]
Following thePolish October in 1956, the concept of socialist realism was condemned. It was then thatmodernist architecture was promoted globally, with simplistic designs made of glass, steel and concrete. Due to previous extravagances, the idea offunctionalism (serving for a purpose) was encouraged byWładysław Gomułka.Prefabrication was seen as a way to constructtower blocks orplattenbau in an efficient and orderly manner.[63] A great influence on this type of architecture was Swiss-French architect and designerLe Corbusier.[63] Mass-prefabricatedmulti-family residential apartment blocks began to appear in Poland in the 1960s and their construction continued until the early 1990s, although the first examples of multi-dwelling units in Poland date back to the 1920s.[63] The aim was to quickly urbanize rural areas, create space between individual blocks for green spaces and resettle people from densely populated poorer districts to increase living conditions. The apartment blocks in Poland, commonly known asbloki, were built on East German and Czechoslovak standards, alongside department stores, pavilions and public spaces. As of 2017, 44% of Poles reside in blocks built between the 1960s and 1980s.[64]
Some groundbreaking architectural achievements were made during the People's Republic, most notably the reconstruction of Warsaw with its historicalOld Town and the completion ofWarszawa Centralna railway station in the 1970s underEdward Gierek's personal patronage. It was the most modern[65][66] railway station building in that part of Europe when completed and was equipped with automatic glass doors and escalators, an unlikely sight in communist countries.[66] Another example of pure late modernism was theSmyk Department Store, constructed in 1952 when socialist realism was still in effect; it was criticized for its appearance as it resembled the styles and motifs of the pre-war capitalistSecond Polish Republic.[67]
Communist authorities placed an emphasis on education since they considered it vital to create a newintelligentsia or an educated class that would accept and favour socialist ideas over capitalism to maintain the communists in power for a long period.
Prior to the Second World War, education in the capitalistSecond Polish Republic (1918–1939) had many limitations and wasn't readily available to all, though under the 1932Jędrzejewicz reform primary school was made compulsory. Furthermore, the pre-war system of education was in disarray; many educational facilities were much more accessible in wealthier western and central Poland than in the rural east (Kresy), particularly in thePolesie region where there was one large school per 100 square kilometers (39 square miles).[68] Schools were also in desperate need of staff, tutors and teachers before 1939.[68]
After the1947 Polish legislative election, the communists took full control of education in the newly formed Polish People's Republic. All private schools were nationalized, subjects that could question the socialist ideology (economics, finance) were either supervised or adjusted and religious studies were completely removed from the curriculum (secularization).[69]
One of many schools constructed in central Warsaw in the 1960s
Primary as well as secondary, tertiary, vocational and higher education was made free. Attendance gradually grew, which put an end to illiteracy in rural areas. The communist government also introduced new beneficial content into the system; sports andphysical education were enforced and students were encouraged to learn foreign languages, especially German, Russian, or French, and from the 1980s also English. On 15 July 1961, two-yearvocational career training was made obligatory to boost the number of skilled labourers and the minimum age of graduation rose to 15. Additionally, special schools were established for deaf,mute and blind children. Such institutions for the impaired were almost nonexistent in the Second Polish Republic. During the 1960s, thousands of modern schools were founded.
The number of universities nearly doubled between 1938 and 1963. Medical, agricultural, economical, engineering and sport faculties became separate colleges, under a universal communist model used in other countries of theEastern Bloc.Theological faculties were deemed unnecessary or potentially dangerous and were therefore removed from state universities.Philosophy was also seen as superfluous. In order to strengthen the post-war Polish economy, the government created many common-labour faculties across the country, including dairying, fishing, tailoring, chemistry and mechanics to achieve a better economic output alongside efficiency. However, by 1980 the number of graduates from primary and secondary schools was so high that admission quotas for universities were introduced.[69]
The Polish anti-religious campaign was initiated by thecommunist government inPoland which, under the doctrine ofMarxism, actively advocated for the disenfranchisement of religion and planned atheisation.[71][72] The Catholic Church, as the religion of mostPoles, was seen as a rival competing for the citizens' allegiance by the government, which attempted to suppress it.[73] To this effect the communist state conducted anti-religious propaganda andpersecution of clergymen and monasteries.[72] As in most other Communist countries, religion was not outlawed as such (an exception beingCommunist Albania) and was permitted by the constitution, but the state attempted to achieve an atheistic society.
TheCatholic Church in Poland provided strong resistance to Communist rule and Poland itself had a long history of dissent to foreign rule.[74] The Polish nation rallied to the Church, as had occurred in neighbouringLithuania, which made it more difficult for the government to impose its antireligious policies as it had in the USSR, where the populace did not hold mass solidarity with theRussian Orthodox Church. It became the strongest anti-communist body during the epoch of Communism in Poland, and provided a more successful resistance than had religious bodies in most other Communist states.[73]
The Catholic Church unequivocally condemned communist ideology.[75] This led to the antireligious activity in Poland being compelled to take a more cautious and conciliatory line than in other Communist countries, largely failing in their attempt to control or suppress the Polish Church.[74]
The state attempted to take control of minority churches, including thePolish Protestant andPolish Orthodox Church in order to use it as a weapon against the anti-communist efforts of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, and it attempted to control the person who was named as Metropolitan for the Polish Orthodox Church; Metropolitan Dionizy (the post-war head of the POC) was arrested and retired from service after his release.[76]
Following the forcible conversion ofEastern Catholics in the USSR to Orthodoxy, the Polish government called on the Orthodox church in Poland to assume 'pastoral care' of the Eastern Catholics in Poland. After the removal of Metropolitan Dionizy from the leadership of the Polish Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Macarius was placed in charge. He was from western Ukraine (previously eastern Poland) and had been instrumental in the compulsory conversion of eastern Catholics to orthodoxy there. Polish security forces assisted him in suppressing resistance to his taking control ofEastern Catholic parishes.[76] Many eastern Catholics who remained in Poland after the postwar border adjustments were resettled in Western Poland in the newly acquired territories from Germany. The state in Poland gave the POC a greater number of privileges than the Roman Catholic Church in Poland; the state even gave money to this Church, although it often defaulted on promised payments, leading to a perpetual financial crisis for the POC.
A demographics graph illustrating population growth between 1900 and 2010. The highest birth rate was during theSecond Polish Republic and consequently under the Polish People's Republic.
The population ofJews in Poland, which formed the largest Jewish community in pre-war Europe at about 3.3 million people, was all but destroyed by 1945. Approximately 3 million Jews died of starvation inghettos andlabor camps, were slaughtered at the GermanNazi extermination camps or by theEinsatzgruppen death squads. Between 40,000 and 100,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust in Poland, and another 50,000 to 170,000 were repatriated from the Soviet Union, and 20,000 to 40,000 from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, there were 180,000 to 240,000 Jews in Poland, settled mostly in Warsaw,Łódź,Kraków andWrocław.[79]
According to the national census, which took place on 14 February 1946, the population of Poland was 23.9 million, out of which 32% lived in cities and towns, and 68% lived in the countryside. The 1950 census (3 December 1950) showed the population rise to 25 million, and the 1960 census (6 December 1960) placed the population of Poland at 29.7 million.[80] In 1950, Warsaw was again the biggest city, with a population of 804,000 inhabitants. Second was Łódź (pop. 620,000), then Kraków (pop. 344,000), Poznań (pop. 321,000), and Wrocław (pop. 309,000).
Females were the majority in the country. In 1931, there were 105.6 women for 100 men. In 1946, the difference grew to 118.5/100, but in subsequent years, number of males grew, and in 1960, the ratio was 106.7/100.
MostGermans were expelled from Poland and the annexed east German territories at the end of the war, while manyUkrainians, Rusyns andBelarusians lived in territories incorporated into theUSSR. Small Ukrainian, Belarusian,Slovak, andLithuanian minorities resided along the borders, and a German minority was concentrated near the southwestern city ofOpole and inMasuria.[81] Groups of Ukrainians and Polish Ruthenians also lived in western Poland, where they were forcefully resettled by the authorities.
As a result of the migrations and the Soviet Union's radically altered borders under the rule ofJoseph Stalin, the population of Poland became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world.[82] Virtually all people in Poland claim Polish nationality, withPolish as their native tongue.[83]
ThePolish People's Army (LWP) was initially formed duringWorld War II as thePolish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division, but more commonly known as theBerling Army. Almost half of the soldiers and recruits in the Polish People's Army were Soviet.[84] In March 1945, Red Army officers accounted for approximately 52% of the entire corps (15,492 out of 29,372). Around 4,600 of them remained by July 1946.[85]
Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Polish Army was under the command of Polish-bornMarshal of the Soviet UnionKonstantin Rokossovsky, who was intentionally given the title "Marshal of Poland" and was also Minister of National Defense.[88] It was heavily tied into the Soviet military structures and was intended to increase Soviet influence as well as control over the Polish units in case of war. This process, however, was stopped in the aftermath of thePolish October in 1956.[89] Rokossovsky, viewed as a Soviet puppet, was excluded from thePolish United Workers' Party and driven out back to theSoviet Union where he remained a hero until death.
The Polish government subsequently established theMazur Commission on 10 December 1956 to investigate allegations of unlawful conduct in the military courts that had occurred during Rokossovsky's tenure.[90][91] The commission concluded their investigation with a list of alleged perpetrators and their victims, but many cases were dismissed or not indictable because the alleged perpetrators had by then already died.[92]
The Polish People's Republic was divided into severalvoivodeships (the Polish unit of administrative division). After World War II, the new administrative divisions were based on the pre-war ones. The areas in the East that were notannexed by the Soviet Union had their borders left almost unchanged.Newly acquired territories in the west and north were organized into the voivodeships ofSzczecin,Wrocław,Olsztyn and partially joined toGdańsk,Katowice andPoznań voivodeships. Two cities were granted voivodeship status:Warsaw andŁódź.
In 1973,Poland's voivodeships were changed again. This reorganization of the administrative division of Poland was mainly a result oflocal government reform acts of 1973 to 1975. In place of the three-level administrative division (voivodeship, powiat, gmina), a new two-level administrative division was introduced (49 small voivodeships and communes). The three smallest voivodeships:Warsaw,Kraków andŁódź had a special status of municipal voivodeship; the city mayor (prezydent miasta) was also province governor.
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