Apogrom[a] is a violentriot incited with the aim ofmassacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularlyJews.[1] The term entered the English language from Russian to describe late 19th- and early 20th-centuryattacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within thePale of Settlement). Retrospectively, similar attacks against Jews which occurred in other times and places were renamed pogroms.[2] Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in,massacres.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
This type of violence has also occurred to other ethnic and religious minorities. Examples include the1984 Sikh massacre in which 3,000Sikhs were killed[13] and the2002 Gujarat pogrom against Indian Muslims.[14]
The wordpogrom
An early reference to a "pogrom" inThe Times of London, December 1903. Together withThe New York Times and theHearst press, they took the lead in highlighting thepogrom in Kishinev (now Chişinău,Moldova) and other cities in Russia.[15] In May of the same year, The Times' Russian correspondent Dudley Disraeli Braham had been expelled from Russia.[16]
First recorded inEnglish in 1882, theRussian wordpogróm (погро́м,pronounced[pɐˈɡrom]) is derived from the common prefixpo- (по-) and the verbgromít' (громи́ть,[ɡrɐˈmʲitʲ]) meaning 'to destroy, wreak havoc, demolish violently'. The nounpogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as aloanword, possibly borrowed fromYiddish (where the word takes the formפאָגראָם).[17] Its modern widespread circulation began with theantisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883.[18]
Usage of the word
The 1921Tulsa race massacre, which destroyed the wealthiestblack community in the United States, has been described as a pogrom.[19]
According toEncyclopædia Britannica, "the term is usually applied to attacks onJews in theRussian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination ofTsar Alexander II in 1881".[1] TheWiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 states that pogroms "wereantisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire."[3] However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to theAnti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Historian of Russian JewryJohn Klier writes inRussians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882: "By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews."[4]Abramson points out that "in mainstream usage the word has come to imply an act ofantisemitism", since while "Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon ... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence."[20]
The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly, some scholars do not includeantisemitism as the defining characteristic ofpogroms. Reviewing the word's uses in scholarly literature, historianWerner Bergmann proposes that a pogrom should be "defined as aunilateral, nongovernmental form ofcollective violence that isinitiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless minority ethnic group, and occurring when themajority expect the state to provide them [sic] with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority".[5] However, Bergmann adds that in Western usage, the word's "anti-Semitic overtones" have been retained.[18] HistorianDavid Engel supports this view, writing that while "there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom]," the majority of the incidents which are "habitually" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided byethnicity orreligion where the violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and where the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to prevent the alleged complaint.[6]
There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define the term pogrom.[6][21] Klier writes that "when applied indiscriminately to events inEastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features."[4] Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities (including theKielce pogrom, thePinsk massacre and theLwów pogrom) was specifically avoided in the 1919Morgenthau Report; the word "excesses" was employed instead because the authors argued that the use of the term "pogrom" required a situation to beantisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions which exist in a war zone.[6][22][23] Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.[24][25][26] In 2008, two separate attacks in theWest Bank byIsraeli Jewishsettlers onPalestinianArabs were characterized as pogroms by thenPrime Minister of IsraelEhud Olmert.[27][28]
Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: "By thecollective attribution of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms ofviolence, such aslynchings, which are directed at individual members of a minority group, while theimbalance of power in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots (food riots,race riots or 'communal riots' between evenly matched groups); and again, thelow level of organization separates them fromvigilantism,terrorism,massacre andgenocide".[5]
History of anti-Jewish pogroms
TheHep-Hep riots inWürzburg, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with a pitchfork and a broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher,"[29] holds a Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving byJohann Michael Voltz.
The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during theKhmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-dayUkraine, then within thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[35] Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky'sCossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children,[b][c] or perhaps many more.[d] However, these figures are contested as being too high, with the lowest estimates suggesting that 18,000–20,000 Jews died out of a total population of 40,000, many due to disease and famine.[36]
TheRussian Empire, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in theRussian Partition that contained large Jewish populations, during the militarypartitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795.[38] In conquered territories, a new political entity called thePale of Settlement was formed in 1791 byCatherine the Great. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities.[39] The 1821Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms inOdessa before the end of the century.[40] Following the assassination ofAlexander II in 1881 byNarodnaya Volya, anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years.[41] Jewish self-governingKehillah were abolished byTsar Nicholas I in 1844.[42]
There is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks.[43]
The first in 20th-century Russia was theKishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged.[44] In the same year, pogroms took place inGomel (Belarus),Smela,Feodosiya andMelitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded.[45] They were followed by theZhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed),[46] and theKiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews.[47] In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland.[45] At about that time, theJewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years.[47] According to professorColin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (see:Southwestern Krai parts ofthe Pale) which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.[48][49] This violence across Eastern Europe prompted a wave ofJewish migration westward that totaled about 2.5 million people.[50]
Eastern Europe after World War I
Map of pogroms in Ukraine between 1918 and 1920 per casualties
Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of theRussian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. ProfessorZvi Gitelman (inA Century of Ambivalence, originally published in 1988) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648.[51] TheKiev pogroms of 1919, according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments[by whom?] put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000.[52][53][verify]
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his controversial 2002 bookTwo Hundred Years Together provided additional statistics from research conducted byNahum Gergel (1887–1931), published in Yiddish in 1928 and English in 1951. Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence between 1918 and 1921, and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions.[49][54] Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research:
About 40 percent were perpetrated by theUkrainian People's Republic forces led bySymon Petliura. The Republic issued orders condemning pogroms,[55] but lacked authority to intervene.[55] After May 1919 the Directory lost its role as a credible governing body; almost 75 percent of pogroms occurred between May and September of that year.[56] Thousands of Jews were killed only for being Jewish, without any political affiliations.[49]
8.5 percent of Gergel's total was attributed to pogroms carried out by men of theRed Army (more specificallySemyon Budenny's First Cavalry, most of whose soldiers had previously served under Denikin).[54] These pogroms were not, however, sanctioned by the Bolshevik leadership; the high command "vigorously condemned these pogroms and disarmed the guilty regiments", and the pogroms would soon be condemned byMikhail Kalinin in a speech made at a military parade in Ukraine.[54][57][58]
Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by theMizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in theYIVOAnnual of Jewish Social Science titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921".[59]
On 8 August 1919, during thePolish–Soviet War, Polish troops took overMinsk inOperation Minsk. They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes.[60][61] The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils."[62][63] According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of theBelorussian SSR."[64]
Pogroms in Europe and the Americas before World War II
Argentina 1919
In 1919, a pogrom occurred inArgentina, during theTragic Week.[71] It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews andCatalans indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case ofBuenos Aires, the Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence ofSpanish nationalism, which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity.[72]
In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 inIreland, theLimerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911Tredegar riot inWales, Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before theBritish Army was called in by the thenHome SecretaryWinston Churchill, who described the riot as a "pogrom".[73]
In the north ofIreland during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920,Lisburn andBelfast saw violence related to theIrish War of Independence andpartition of Ireland. On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, ProtestantLoyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs.[74] The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.[75] These sectarian actions are often referred to as theBelfast Pogrom. In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in the town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn.[76] By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formedNorthern Ireland. On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant.[77]
In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period, the "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200Blackshirt youths ran amok inStepney in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England.[78]
The first pogrom inNazi Germany was theKristallnacht, often calledPogromnacht, in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated inNazi concentration camps,[10] over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.[11][12]
A large number of pogroms occurred duringthe Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans.[81] Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was theIași pogrom inRomania, perpetrated byIon Antonescu, in which as many as 13,266Jews were killed byRomanian citizens, police and military officials.[82]
On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-dayFarhud pogrom inIraq, perpetrated byRashid Ali,Yunis al-Sabawi, and theal-Futuwa youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes".[83][84] Also, 300–400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.[85]
Jewish woman chased by men and youth armed with clubs during theLviv pogroms, July 1941
Anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania. The 1945 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting againstJews inNorth Africa in modern times. From 5 November to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom inBritish-military-controlled Tripolitania. 38 Jews were killed inTripoli from where the riots spread. 40 were killed in Amrus, 34 in Zanzur, 7 in Tajura, 13 in Zawia and 3 in Qusabat.[97]
Under the Suharto regime, there had been rampant and systematicdiscrimination against Chinese Indonesians. During the pogrom, there were extensive looting and torching of Chinese Indonesian properties.[104] There were also widespread murders and rape against this minority group.[105][106][107]
The2005 Cronulla riots (also known as the"Cronulla Race Riots" or the"Cronulla pogrom")[114] were a series ofrace riots inSydney, New South Wales, Australia.
There were many attacks byIsraeli settlers against Palestinians in the occupiedWest Bank leading up to and during the full scale war in theGaza Strip in 2023 and 2024.[118]
On 26 February, 2023, violent riots broke out from Israeli settlers in Huwara after two Israelis were shot and killed by a Palestinian gunman there earlier that afternoon.[119] The rioters killed one Palestinian, 37-year-old Sameh Aqtash, and wounded dozens, while torching houses and cars.[120]
Top Israeli general in theWest Bank,Yehuda Fuchs, referred to the Israeli settlers' actions as a "pogrom": "The incident in Hawara was a pogrom carried out by outlaws,"[121][122] and Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu condemned "vigilantism".[119]
JournalistGideon Levy wrote an editorial inHaaretz saying that Israel's military had failed to stop the violence stating: "whether out of apathy and complacency, or because they were very deliberately turning a blind eye."[123] A legal expert said that the rioters could face war crime charges if Israel did not conduct an investigation into the perpetrators.[124]
Jewish American documentary makerSimone Zimmerman also used the termpogrom to describe the attacks on Palestinians by Israeli settlers in Hawara in February 2023.[125] Zimmerman described these attacks as being committed by settlers while the Israeli army stood by and let it happen.[125]
On 7 October 2023,Hamas'Al Qassam Brigades militant wing (based in theGaza Strip), and other groups and individuals incited to join them,[126] initiated an attack on Israel. In addition to the military, the attack also targeted civilian communities and resulted in the deaths of over 695 Israeli civilians, most of whom wereIsraeli Jews and some of whom wereArab Israelis.[127][128] In the attacks Al Qassam and other armed groups from Gaza alsotook approximately 250 people, many of which were non-Israelis hostage, including infants, elderly, and people who had already been severely injured.[129]
Survivors of October 7 have also described the attack on theirkibbutzim as pogroms.[134]
Some sources from in Israel and in the Jewish diaspora have specifically objected to the characterisation of 7 October as a pogrom, saying the events on 7 October do not resemble the original historical pogroms in Russia.[135]The Jerusalem Post described the 7 October attacks as "historically unique", as well as "foreseeable" and "expected".[136]Judith Butler, controversially described the attacks as an "act of armed resistance".[137]
In the Palestinian village ofAl-QanoubIsraeli settlers descended from the nearby settlement ofAsfar and the adjacent outpost ofPnei Kedem, burned houses, set their dogs on the farm animals, and, at gunpoint, ordered the residents to leave or else they would be killed.[141]
In 2024 there were pogroms against Syrian refugees in Turkey.[142]
November 2024 Amsterdam riots
TheNovember 2024 Amsterdam riots preceding and following theAFC Ajax -Maccabi Tel Aviv football match were described by some as a "pogrom". Israeli diplomatDanny Danon stated that, "We are receiving very disturbing reports of extreme violence against Israelis and Jews on the streets of Holland. There is a pogrom currently taking place in Europe in 2024".[143] TheMayor of Amsterdam later said that the word "pogrom" was inappropriate and that it had been misused as "propaganda".[144][145][146] In the weeks after the event, the initial media coverage was widely criticized for misrepresenting the event.[147][148][149] Targets of the violence included Israeli Maccabi Tel Aviv fans,[150] an Arab taxi driver,[151] and pro-Palestinian protestors.[152] In the run-up to the match, some Maccabi Tel Aviv fans were filmed pullingPalestinian flags from houses, makinganti-Arab chants such as "Death to Arabs", assaulting people, and vandalising local property.[153][154][155][156][157] Calls to target Israeli supporters were subsequently shared via social media.[158][159]
Scope: This is a partial list of events for which one of the commonly accepted names includes the wordpogrom. Inclusion in this list is based solely on evidence in multiple reliable sources that a name including the wordpogrom is one of the accepted names for that event. A reliable source that merely describes the event as being a pogrom does not qualify the event for inclusion in this list. The wordpogrom must appear in the source as part of a name for the event.
^Prof. Sandra Gambetti: "A final note on the use of terminology related to anti-Semitism. Scholars have frequently labeled the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. as the first pogrom[citation needed] in history and have often explained them in terms of anante litteram explosion of anti-Semitism. This work [The Alexandrian Riots] deliberately avoids any words or expressions that in any way connect, explicitly or implicitly, the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. to later events in modern or contemporary Jewish experience, for which that terminology was created. ... To decide whether a word likepogrom, for example, is an appropriate term to describe the events that are studied here, requires a comparative re-discussion of two historical frames—the Alexandria of 38 C.E. and the Russia of the end of the nineteenth century."[160]
^abJohn Klier: "upon the death of theGrand Prince of Kiev Sviatopolk, rioting broke out in Kiev against his agents and the town administration. The disorders were not specifically directed against Jews and they are best characterized as a social revolution. This fact has not prevented historians of medieval Russia from describing them as a pogrom."[162] Klier also writes that AlexanderPereswetoff-Morath has advanced a strong argument against considering the Kiev riots of 1113 an anti-Jewish pogrom. Pereswetoff-Morath writes in "A Grin without a Cat" (2002) that "I feel that Birnbaum's use of the term "anti-Semitism' as well as, for example, his use of 'pogrom' in references to medieval Rus are not warranted by the evidence he presents. He is, of course, aware that it may be controversial."[162] George Vernadsky: "Incidentally, one should not suppose that the movement was anti-Semitic. There was no general Jewish pogrom. Wealthy Jewish merchants suffered because of their association with Sviatopolk's speculations, especially his hated monopoly on salt."[163]
^John Klier: "Russian armies led by Tsar Ivan IV captured the Polish city of Polotsk. The Tsar ordered drowned in the river Dvina all Jews who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity. This episode certainly demonstrates the overt religious hostility towards the Jews which was very much a part of Muscovite culture, but its conversionary aspects were entirely absent from modern pogroms. Nor were the Jews the only heterodox religious group singled out for the tender mercies of Muscovite religious fanaticism."[162]
^Israeli ambassador to Ireland, Boaz Moda'i: "I think it is a bit over-portrayed, meaning that, usually if you look up the word pogrom it is used in relation to slaughter and being killed. This is what happened in many other places in Europe, but that is not what happened here. There was a kind of boycott against Jewish merchandise for a while but that's not a pogrom."[165]
^Carole Fink: "What happened in Pinsk on April 5, 1919 was not a literal "pogrom" – an organized, officially tolerated or inspired massacre of a minority such as the massacre which occurred in Lemberg – instead, it was a military execution of a small, suspect group of civilians. ... The misnamed "Pinsk pogrom", a plain, powerful, alliterative phrase, entered history in April 1919. Its importance lay not only in its timing, during the tensest moments of theParis Peace Conference and the most crucial deliberations over Poland's political future: The reports of Pinsk once more demonstrated the swift transmission of local violence to world notice and the disfiguring process of rumor and prejudice on every level."[171]
^6 Catholics were killed, 4 by state force & 2 by anti-Catholic mob.
^Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.[26][24] For example, Joyce Purnick ofThe New York Times wrote in 1993 that the use of the wordpogrom was "inflammatory"; she accused politicians of "trying to enlarge and twist the word" in order to "pander to Jewish voters".[179]
^790 Muslims and 254 Hindus (official) 1,926 to 2,000+ total (other sources)[183][184][185]
^Aulus Avilius Flaccus, theEgyptianprefect of Alexandria appointed byTiberius in 32 CE, may have encouraged the outbreak of violence in which Jews were pushed out of the city of Alexandria and blockaded into a Jewish "ghetto". Those trying to escape the ghetto were killed, dismembered, and some burnt alive.[161]Philo wrote that Flaccus was later arrested and eventually executed for his part in this event. Scholarly research around the subject has been divided on certain points, including whether the Alexandrian Jews fought to keep their citizenship or to acquire it, whether they evaded the payment of the poll-tax or prevented any attempts to impose it on them, and whether they were safeguarding their identity against the Greeks or against the Egyptians.
^ A mob stormed the royal palace inGranada, which was at that time in Muslim-ruledal-Andalus, assassinated theJewishvizier Joseph ibn Naghrela andmassacred much of the Jewish population of the city.
^ A rebellion which was sparked by the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev, in which Jews who participated in the prince's economic affairs were some of the victims.[citation needed]
^ A series of massacres and forced conversions beginning on 4 June 1391 in the city ofSeville before they extend to the rest ofCastile and theCrown of Aragon. It is considered one of theMiddle Ages' largest attacks on the Jews, and were ultimately expelled from theIberian Peninsula in 1492.
^ After an episode of famine and bad harvests, a pogrom happened in Lisbon, Portugal,[164] in which more than 1,000 "New Christian" (forcibly converted Jews) people were slaughtered or burnt by an angry Christian mob, in the first night of what became known as the "Lisbon Massacre". The killing occurred from 19 to 21 April, almost eliminating the entire Jewish or Jewish-descended community in that city. Even the Portuguese military and the king himself had difficulty stopping it. Today the event is remembered with a monument in S. Domingos' church.
^ Following the fall of Polotsk to the army of Ivan IV, all those who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity were ordered drowned in theWestern Dvina river.
^ Eastern Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthCossack riots, aka pogroms, aka uprisings included massive atrocities committed against Jews in what is today Ukraine, in numbers (conservatively estimated here by Veidlinger, Ataskevitch & Bemporad). They resulted in the creation of a new Hetmantate.
^ The Greeks of Odessa attacked the local Jewish community, in what began as economic disputes.
^ Following accusations of Jews having conspired to murder a Christian monk for culinary purposes, the local population attacked Jewish businesses and committed acts of violence against the Jewish population.
^ Three days of rioting against Jews, Jewish stores, businesses, and residences in the streets adjoining the Holy Cross Church.
^ A mob attacked the Jewish shops, killing fourteen Jews and onegendarme. The Russian military brought to restore order were stoned by mob.
^ A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead and many more wounded, as many Jewish residents took arms to defend their families and property from the attackers. The 1905 pogrom against the Jewish population inOdessa was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of up to 2,500 Jews killed.
^ Three days of anti-Jewish rioting sparked by antisemitic articles in local newspapers.
^ Two days of anti-Jewish rioting beginning as political protests against the Tsar.
^ Following a city hall meeting, a mob was drawn into the streets, proclaiming that "all Russia's troubles stemmed from the machinations of theJews andsocialists."
^ An attack organized by the Russian secret police Okhrana . Antisemitic pamphlets had been distributed for over a week and before any unrest begun, acurfew was declared.
^ An economic boycott waged against the small Jewish community in Limerick, Ireland, for over two years.
^ A massacre of Armenians in the city ofAdana amidst thegovernment upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district.
^ A massacre of African Americans living inSlocum, Texas, organized by white mobs after rumors of a Black uprising began to spread. White people throughoutAnderson County gathered guns, ammunition, and alcohol to prepare. District Judge Benjamin Howard Gardner attempted to stop the massacre by closing all saloons, gun stores, and hardware stores, but it was too late. The massacre lasted 16 hours, with white mobs killing any Black people they saw. As a result of the massacre, half of Slocum's Black population had left or been killed by the next census.
^ During thePolish-Ukrainian War over three days of unrest in the city, an estimated 52–150 Jewish residents were killed and hundreds more were injured by Polish soldiers and civilians. Two hundred and seventy Ukrainians were also killed during this incident. The Poles did not stop the pogrom until two days after it began.
^ The pogrom was initiated byIvan Samosenko following a failedBolshevik uprising against the Ukrainian People's Republic in the city.[169] The massacre was carried out byUkrainian People's Republicsoldiers ofSamosenko. According to historians Yonah Alexander and Kenneth Myers the soldiers marched into the centre of town accompanied by a military band and engaged in atrocities under the slogan: "Kill the Jews and save Ukraine." They were ordered to save the ammunition in the process and use only lances and bayonets.[170]
^ A series of anti-Jewish pogroms in various places aroundKiev carried out byWhite Army troops
^ It was followed by the vandalizing of Jewish houses and shops. The tensions started in June 1934 and spread to a few other villages in Eastern Thrace region and to some small cities in Western Aegean region. At the height of the violent events, it was rumoured that a rabbi was stripped naked and was dragged through the streets shamefully while his daughter was raped. Over 15,000 Jews had to flee from the region.[173][174]
^ Some of the Jewish residents gathered in the town square in anticipation of the attack by the peasants, but nothing happened on that day. Two days later, however, on a market day, as historiansMartin Gilbert and David Vital state, peasants attacked their Jewish neighbors.
^ Coordinated attacks against Jews throughoutNazi Germany and parts ofAustria, carried out bySA paramilitary forces and non-Jewish civilians. Accounts from the foreign journalists working in Germany sent shock waves around the world.
^ Romanian military units carried out a pogrom against the local Jews, during which, according to an official Romanian report, 53 Jews were murdered, and dozens injured.
^ One of the most violent pogroms inJewish history, launched by governmental forces in theRomanian city ofIași (Jassy) against itsJewish population.
^ As the privileges of the paramilitary organisationIron Guard were being cut off byConducătorIon Antonescu, members of the Iron Guard, also known as the Legionnaires, revolted. During the rebellion and pogrom, the Iron Guard killed 125 Jews and 30 soldiers died in the confrontation with the rebels.
^ The localrabbi was forced to lead a procession of about 40 people to a pre-emptied barn, killed and buried along with fragments of a destroyed monument ofLenin. A further 250–300 Jews were led to the same barn later that day, locked inside and burned alive usingkerosene.
^ 180 Jews were killed and over 1,000 injured in attacks onShavuot following British victory in theAnglo-Iraqi War.
^ A series of massacres directed atIgbo and other southern Nigerian residents throughout Nigeria before and after the overthrow (and assassination) of theAguiyi-Ironsi junta byMurtala Mohammed.
^ Along with the 6 murders, 500 Irish Catholics were injured by the state forces and anti-Catholic mob, 72 of those injured were injured from gun shot wounds, also 150+ Catholic homes and 275+ businesses had been destroyed – 83% of all buildings destroyed were owned by Catholics. Catholics generally fled across the border into the Republic of Ireland as refugees. AfterBelfast the other areas that saw violence wereNewry,Armagh,Crossmaglen,Dungannon,Coalisland andDungiven. The bloodiest clashes were in Belfast, where seven people were killed and hundreds wounded, in what some viewed as an attempted pogrom against the Catholic minority. Protesters clashed with both the police and with loyalists, who attacked Catholic districts. Scores of homes and businesses were burnt out, most of them owned by Catholics, and thousands of mostly Catholic families were driven from their homes. In some cases, RUC officers helped the loyalists and failed to protect Catholic areas.
^ Mobs made up largely of ethnic Azeris formed into groups that went on to attack and kill Armenians both on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the situation to worsen.
^ Ethnic Azeris attacked Armenians throughout the city.
^ Seven-day attack during which Armenians were beaten, tortured, murdered and expelled from the city. There were also many raids on apartments, robberies and Parsons.
^ A three-dayriot that occurred in theCrown Heights section ofBrooklyn,New York. The riots incited by the death of the seven-year-old Gavin Cato, unleashed simmering tensions within Crown Heights' black community against the Orthodox Jewish community. In its wake, several Jews were seriously injured; one Orthodox Jewish man, Yankel Rosenbaum, was killed; and a non-Jewish man, allegedly mistaken by rioters for a Jew, was killed by a group of African-American men.[180][181]
^ TheSrebrenica massacre, also known as theSrebrenica genocide, was the July 1995 killing of more than 8,000BosniakMuslim men and boys in and around the town ofSrebrenica, during theBosnian War. The killings were perpetrated by units of the Bosnian SerbArmy of Republika Srpska (VRS)under the command ofRatko Mladić. TheScorpions, a paramilitary unit fromSerbia, who had been part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, also participated in the massacre.[182]
^ Over 4,000 Serbs were forced to leave their homes, 935 Serb houses, 10 public facilities and 35 Serbian Orthodox church-buildings were desecrated, damaged or destroyed, and six towns and nine villages were ethnically cleansed.
Micheal Clodfelter (2002).Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at 56,000 dead.
^Historians estimating that around 100,000 Jews were killed include:
Cara Camcastle.The More Moderate Side of Joseph de Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy, McGill-Queen's Press, 2005,ISBN0-7735-2976-4, p. 26.
Martin Gilbert (1999).Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past, Columbia University Press,ISBN0-231-10965-2, p. 219.
Manus I. Midlarsky.The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, 2005,ISBN0-521-81545-2, p. 352.
Oscar Reiss (2004).The Jews in Colonial America, McFarland,ISBN0-7864-1730-7, pp. 98–99.
Colin Martin Tatz (2003).With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Verso,ISBN1-85984-550-9, p. 146.
Samuel Totten (2004).Teaching about Genocide: Issues, Approaches and Resources, Information Age Publishing,ISBN1-59311-074-X, p. 25.
Mosheh Weiss (2004).A Brief History of the Jewish People, Rowman & Littlefield,ISBN0-7425-4402-8, p. 193.
^Historians who estimate that more than 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in 1648–1657 include:
Meyer Waxman (2003).History of Jewish Literature Part 3, Kessinger,ISBN0-7661-4370-8, p. 20: estimated at two hundred thousand Jews killed.
Micheal Clodfelter (2002).Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000 Jewish victims.
Zev Garber, Bruce Zuckerman (2004).Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts, University Press of America,ISBN0-7618-2894-X, p. 77, footnote 17: estimated at 100,000–500,000 Jews.
The Columbia Encyclopedia (2001–2005), "Chmielnicki Bohdan", 6th ed.: estimated at over 100,000 Jews.
Robert Melvin Spector (2005).World without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History and Analysis, University Press of America,ISBN0-7618-2963-6, p. 77: estimated at more than 100,000.
Sol Scharfstein (2004).Jewish History and You, KTAV,ISBN0-88125-806-7, p. 42: estimated at more than 100,000 Jews killed.
Citations
^abEditors of Encyclopædia Britannica; et al. (2017)."Pogrom".Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica.com.(Russian: "devastation" or "riot"), a mob attack, either approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
^abcKlier, John (2011).Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882.Cambridge University Press. p. 58.ISBN978-0-521-89548-4.By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. Yet when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that "pogroms" were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features. In fact, outbreaks of mass violence against Jews were extraordinary events, not a regular feature of East European life.
^abcdDekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010).Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-00478-9.Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank.
^Klier, John (2010)."Pogroms".The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research.The common usage of the term pogrom to describe any attack against Jews throughout history disguises the great variation in the scale, nature, motivation and intent of such violence at different times.
^ab"World War II: Before the War".The Atlantic. 19 June 2011.Windows of shops owned by Jews which were broken during a coordinated anti-Jewish demonstration in Berlin, known as Kristallnacht, on November 10, 1938. Nazi authorities turned a blind eye as SA stormtroopers and civilians destroyed storefronts with hammers, leaving the streets covered in pieces of smashed windows. Ninety-one Jews were killed, and 30,000 Jewish men were taken to concentration camps.
^Bedi, Rahul (1 November 2009)."Indira Gandhi's death remembered". BBC News.Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved2 November 2009.The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing
^abInternational handbook of violence research. Vol. 1. Springer. 2005.ISBN978-1-4020-3980-5.The word "pogrom" (from the Russian, meaning storm or devastation) has a relatively short history. Its international currency dates back to the anti-Semitic excesses in Tsarist Russia during the years 1881–1883, but the phenomenon existed in the same form at a much earlier date and was by no means confined to Russia. As John D. Klier points out in his seminal article "The pogrom paradigm in Russian history", the anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia were described by contemporaries as demonstrations, persecution, or struggle, and the government made use of the term besporiadok (unrest, riot) to emphasize the breach of public order. Then, during the twentieth century, the term began to develop along two separate lines. In the Soviet Union, the word lost its anti-Semitic connotation and came to be used for reactionary forms of political unrest and, from 1989, for outbreaks of interethnic violence; while in the West, the anti-Semitic overtones were retained and government orchestration or acquiescence was emphasized.
^Abramson, Henry (1999).A prayer for the government: Ukrainians and Jews in revolutionary times, 1917–1920.Harvard University Press. p. 109.ISBN978-0-916458-88-1.The etymological roots of the term pogrom are unclear, although it seems to be derived from the Slavic word for "thunder(bolt)" (Russian: grom, Ukrainian: hrim). The first syllable, po-, is a prefix indicating "means" or "target". The word therefore seems to imply a sudden burst of energy (thunderbolt) directed at a specific target. A pogrom is generally thought of as a cross between a popular riot and a military atrocity, where an unarmed civilian, often urban, population is attacked by either an army unit or peasants from surrounding villages, or a combination of the two.
^Bergmann writes that "the concept of "ethnic violence" covers a range of heterogeneous phenomena, and in many cases there are still no established theoretical and conceptual distinctions in the field (Waldmann, 1995:343)" Bergmann then goes on to set out a variety of conflicting scholarly views on the definition and usage of the term pogrom.
^abMark, Jonathan (9 August 2011)."What The 'Pogrom' Wrought".The Jewish Week. Archived fromthe original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved15 February 2015.A divisive debate over the meaning of pogrom, lasting for more than two years, could have easily been ended if the mayor simply said to the victims of Crown Heights, yes, I understand why you experienced it as a pogrom.
^New York Media, LLC (9 September 1991).New York Magazine. New York Media, LLC. p. 28. Retrieved15 February 2015.
^abKoutsoukis, Jason (15 September 2008)."Settlers attack Palestinian village".The Sydney Morning Herald.Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved14 November 2023.'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.'
^Codex Judaica: chronological index of Jewish history; p. 203 Máttis Kantor – 2005 "The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs."
^John MarshallJohn Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture; p. 376 2006 "The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders,"
^Anna FoaThe Jews of Europe after the black death 2000 p. 13 "The first massacres took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where theJewish quarter was raided and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterwards, violence broke out in Barcelona."
^Durant, Will (1953).The Renaissance. Simon and Schuster. pp. 730–731.ISBN0-671-61600-5.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Zaretsky, Robert (27 October 2023)."Why so many people call the Oct. 7 massacre a 'pogrom' — and what they miss when they do so".The Forward. Retrieved6 June 2024.Thanks to the work of the historian John Klier, we also know that the Czarist authorities neither choreographed nor encouraged the pogroms. Instead, they were mostly spontaneous and perhaps as much about managing social status as they were about murdering Jews.
^Budnitski, Oleg (1997).יהודי רוסיה בין האדומים ללבנים [Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites].Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies.12:189–198.ISSN0333-9068.JSTOR23535861.
^Gilman, Sander L.; Shain, Milton (1999).Jewries at the Frontier: Accommodation, Identity, Conflict. University of Illinois Press. p. 39.ISBN978-0-252-06792-1.After the end of the fighting and as a result of the Polish victory, some of the Polish soldiers and the civilian population started a pogrom against the Jewish inhabitants. Polish soldiers maintained that the Jews had sympathized with the Ukrainian position during the conflicts
^Llaudó Avila, Eduard (2021).Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània [Racism and political supremacism in contemporary Spain] (in Catalan) (7a ed.). Manresa: Parcir.ISBN978-84-18849-10-7.
^Meier, Anna (2008).Die Intelligenzaktion: Die Vernichtung der polnischen Oberschicht im Gau Danzig-Westpreußen [The intelligence operation: The destruction of the Polish upper class in the Danzig-West Prussia district] (in German). VDM Verlag.ISBN978-3-639-04721-9.
^Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1997).Poland's Holocaust. McFarland & Company. p. 164.ISBN0-7864-0371-3.LAF units distinguished themselves by committing murder, rape, and pillage.
^abBedi, Rahul (1 November 2009)."Indira Gandhi's death remembered".BBC News.Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved2 November 2009.The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing.
^Isabelle Clark-Decès (10 February 2011).A Companion to the Anthropology of India. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN9781444390582.Archived from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved7 July 2017.the violence occurred in the aftermath of a fire that broke out in carriage of the Sabarmati Express train
^Escherle, Nora Anna (2013). Rippl, Gabriele;Schweighauser, Philipp; Kirss, Tina; Sutrop, Margit; Steffen, Therese (eds.).Haunted Narratives: Life Writing in an Age of Trauma (3rd Revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 205.ISBN978-1-4426-4601-8.OCLC841909784.
^Willem, Feenstra; Haro, Kraak; Mark, Misérus; Loes, Reijmer; Marjolein van, de Water (8 November 2024)."Hoe de oorlog in het Midden-Oosten Amsterdam in geweld onderdompelde" [How the Middle East War Engulfed Amsterdam in Violence].De Volkskrant (in Dutch). Retrieved10 November 2024.
^Limerick Leader, Saturday 6 November 2010, Jewish envoy says Limerick pogrom is 'over-portrayed'
^Davies, David (16 January 2015)."Should Texas Remember Or Forget The Slocum Massacre?". Texas Public Radio. Retrieved17 November 2021.But there was some follow-up reporting that there was a Texas Rangers investigation and indictments of the white men who led the Slocum pogrom.
^Gioseffi, Daniela (1993).On Prejudice: A Global Perspective. Anchor Books. p. 246.ISBN978-0-385-46938-8. Retrieved2 September 2013....Andric describes the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that erupted among Muslims, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers following the assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo...
^Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938, Carole Fink, 2006, p185
^"1934: A Rare Kind of Pogrom Begins, in Turkey".Haaretz. 5 June 2014. Retrieved17 January 2023.On June 5, 1934, violent actions against Jews of several towns in the Turkish region of Thrace began. Although no Jews were killed, the extensive destruction of property, and the very fact of the attacks in a country that was always known for its hospitality to Jews, led to many of them moving from Thrace, or emigrating from Turkey altogether. Recent historical research has led some scholars to conclude that this was the goal of the government in the actions it took in the weeks prior to the pogroms...
^Bayraktar, Hatiice (2006). "The anti-Jewish pogrom in Eastern Thrace in 1934: New evidence for the responsibility of the Turkish government".Patterns of Prejudice.40 (2):95–111.doi:10.1080/00313220600634238.S2CID144078355.
^Jaffrelot, Christophe (July 2003)."Communal Riots in Gujarat: The State at Risk?"(PDF).Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics: 16.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved5 November 2013.
^abOren Ziv (אורן זיו) (28 March 2024).תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים [Investigation: The person killed in the Huwara pogrom was probably shot by settlers].local call (שיחה מקומית) (in Hebrew). Retrieved20 July 2024.
Astashkevich, Irina (2018).Gendered Violence: Jewish Women in the Pogroms of 1917 to 1921 (Jews of Russia & Eastern Europe and Their Legacy). Academic Studies Press.ISBN978-1-61811-616-1.
Avrutin, Eugene M.; Bemporad, Elissa, eds. (2021).Pogroms: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-762929-1.
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