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Thepoffer,toer (Limburg dialect) orNorth Brabantian hat is a traditional female folk headdress ofNorth Brabant, most famous of theMeierij of 's-Hertogenbosch and of northernLimburg,Netherlands. The poffer was worn only by married women. It was fashionable between the 1860s and the 1920s. In contrast toZeeland and the more northern parts of theNetherlands, in North Brabant and Limburg there was never any distinctive folkloric costume worn by either men or women, making the poffer the only folkloric garment in this part of the Netherlands.[1]
The wordpoffer is derived frompoffen, the puffing of sleeves and trousers worn in the mid-19th century.[2] The poffer evolved from a simple headdress, thepaske (a strip of fabric decorated with narrow, pleated fabric) which was worn on a white hat. InLimburg the poffer is called atoer.Toer is a term derived from theFrench word,touronette.Touronette is akin tofeminine finery but was originally a braid with ribbons and flowers.[3] The poffer is not to be confused with thepoffer-pan, used to makepoffertjes.[4]
Prior to 1900, the Brabant area was not prosperous due to poor sandy soil. With the introduction offertilizer around 1860, the region's economy improved. This new wealth was reflected by an increase in the size of the poffer, which was at its largest size between about 1915 and 1920.
The poffer was worn by those who could afford one: the wives of middle-class men, richer farmers, officials and professionals, such as a mayor or doctor.[3] The size and elegance of a woman's poffer reflected her husband's wealth. Men aspired to see their wives noticed in an elaborate poffer. Sometimes, the poffer was mockingly called a "meringue".
In the first half of the 20th century, the poffer fell out of favour, largely because of its impracticality, especially when riding a bicycle. There was also a lack of fabric in the area during the second world war period. The wearing of the poffer continued until the 1950s but only on special occasions such asweddings,holidays and attending church during which it was replaced by more modern style hats.[1]
The poffer was a whitetulle hat with alace trim. It was decorated withpearls and white, gold, silver or glassbeads calleddew drops. It was also adorned withartificial flowers (or artificial fruit in case of older women) and four ribbons (lavaliers) of about 12 cm wide and 60 cm long which hung over the shoulders and the back. The breadth and quality of the ribbons indicated the wealth of the wearer.[1] The details of the poffer varied from one area to another.[1]
The poffer was decorated with artificial flowers or fruits in pastel shades or brighter colors depending on the town's tradition. One could recognize the hometown of the wearer by its appearance and the age of the wearer by the decoration on the poffer. Flowers were for brides and younger married women. Older women decorated their poffer with silk apples, pears and buds.[1][5]
The poffer varied regionally in size, shape, colour and decoration. Women preferred the type of poffer from their home town. Even if a woman lived in another village afters married, she usually would still order her poffer from the poffer maker in her home village or town.[3]
The poffer had many different local names including:klein mutsje (little hat);koveltje (from littlecowl or dormeuse);kempische muts (Campinian hat);kindermuts (children's hat);cornetmuts (fromcornette hat);Eindhovense mutsje (Eindhovenian hat);drie-toerkes muts (three-touronettes hat); and,daagse muts (daily hat).
The type of head garment was found inNorth Brabant,Limburg fromMook toRoermond and across theGerman border to just pastXanten. To the north, poffers were worn in southernGelderland, for example, inNijmegen andBommelerwaard.
The biggest poffer was worn in theMeierij, where it was worn towards the front of the head. To the east of Brabant and Limburg the poffer would be placed further back on the head. In easternNorth Brabant, the poffer followed the shape of the head, like an arc. In westernNorth Brabant, a pleated poffer was worn.
First, a black cap was worn to smooth the form and strengthen the shape of the head. This hat was worn at home when the woman was around an open fire. Next, alace,tulle orgauze hat was worn. Then, the poffer was worn as an over-bonnet, either pinned to the hat at the front and or tied beneath the chin.[6] To keep the soft fabric of the poffer in shape, starch withborax and white wax was used. The hat and poffer were detached for cleaning and washed in soft soap and then laid, still wet, on the grass to be bleached by the sun.Starch was used to keep the fabric from yellowing.
Poffers for babies and young children were not made. Until a girl was 10 years of age she'd wear a tight woolen cap. Even so, a baby or young girl'sbonnet could be decorated with gauze flowers and had ribbons for securing.
Unmarried women did not wear a poffer. However, they did wear a black bonnet called acapotehoedje orkaphoedje. These were headdresses of a single black piece of fabric, adorned with two or four black ribbons and black artificial flowers. In Veghel they were known to also have little black glass bells that would ring if they walked. These black bonnets were worn after a girl's firstholy communion at about the age of twelve.
Traditionally, in theNetherlands, those in mourning wore dark clothes. In North Brabant and northernLimburg the shade of the day to day dress was also dark or black (also for weddings and other celebrations clothing was entirely black). Women in those areas therefore indicated their mourning state by wearing a special type of poffer: there would be no lace trim and no beads and few flowers. In a few villages in thePeel the mourning poffer could be all black or it was black and white, but these non-white poffers are rare exceptions. Generally a mourning poffer would be entirely white but without any or with only flower decorations. If the deceased was a more distant relative, an all white "half" mourning poffer with all white flower decorations but without beads and never with lace was worn.[1]
Once, each village had a poffer maker with their own distinct tradition, and the poffer maker would in detail consult the client how the design would look like and which fabrics would be used. A poffer took approximately sixty hours to make. Poffer makers were divided into three grades. In the lowest grade were women who cleaned, repaired and washed the poffers. The middle grade consisted of those who made new poffers. Theupper ten designed the poffers and made high end articles. Poffer makers were often unmarried ladies with a physical impairment.[1]
For washing, starching, ironing and reassembling a poffer, a poffer maker received 9 cents. The price of an ordinary poffer was 35 guilders. A mourning poffer cost 15 guilders. A chic poffer with handmade lace and a new under hat cost approximately 100guilders. The price depended on the amount of lace and the number of floral motifs. A special poffer could cost as much as 500 guilders. Usually, a farmer's wife had two or three poffers.[3]
Dutchethnological museums have a number of poffers in their collections, and someNorth Brabantian museums have special collections, for example, the Museum van Brabantse mutsen en poffers inSint-Oedenrode.[7][8]Poffers are worn during folkloric celebrations, especially at theboerenbruiloft (peasant wedding) during thecarnaval. In 1996, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the province ofNorth Brabant, a commemorative coin was issued which was called thepoffer. It depicted a woman wearing a poffer. This coin was legal tender until 10 January 1997.[9]
The best known visual art representation of the poffer is likely the 1885 portrait of a woman byVincent van Gogh, held in the Norton Simon Museum of Art,Pasadena,California. Vincent van Gogh made several woman portraits with poffers during hisNuenen period.[10]