Poetry of Scotland includes all forms of verse written inBrythonic,Latin,Scottish Gaelic,Scots, French,English andEsperanto and any language in which poetry has been written within the boundaries of modern Scotland, or by Scottish people.
Much of the earliestWelsh literature was composed in or near Scotland, but only written down in Wales much later. These includeTheGododdin, considered the earliest surviving verse from Scotland. Very few works ofGaelic poetry survive from this period and most of these in Irish manuscripts.TheDream of the Rood, from which lines are found on theRuthwell Cross, is the only surviving fragment ofNorthumbrianOld English from early Medieval Scotland. In Latin early works include a "Prayer for Protection" attributed to St Mugint, andAltus Prosator ("The High Creator") attributed to St Columba. There were probablyfilidh who acted as poets, musicians and historians. After the "de-gallicisation" of the Scottish court from the twelfth century,bards continued to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands. What survives of their work was only recorded from the sixteenth century. This includes poems composed by women, including Aithbhreac Nighean Coirceadail. The first surviving major text in Scots literature isJohn Barbour'sBrus (1375). In the early fifteenth century Scots historical works includedAndrew of Wyntoun's verseOrygynale Cronykil of Scotland andBlind Harry'sThe Wallace. They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were produced in the period. Much Middle Scots literature was produced bymakars, poets with links to the royal court, which includedJames I, who wrote the extended poemThe Kingis Quair.
Makars at the court ofJames IV includedRobert Henryson,William Dunbar andGavin Douglas. Douglas'sEneados (1513) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in anAnglian language.James V supported William Stewart andJohn Bellenden.David Lyndsay wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires.George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo-Latin poetry that would continue into the seventeenth century. From the 1550s cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court, political turmoil and discouragement from theKirk. Poets from this period includedRichard Maitland of Lethington,John Rolland),Alexander Hume andAlexander Scott.James VI promoted the literature in Scots and became patron and member of a loose circle of court poets and musicians, later called theCastalian Band, which includedWilliam Fowler,John Stewart of Baldynneis, andAlexander Montgomerie. After his accession to the English throne in 1603 James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England and the loss of the court as a centre of patronage was a major blow to Scottish literature. A new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge, including work by women such as Mary MacLeod of Harris. The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of theDeliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637). This period was marked by the work of female Scottish poets includingElizabeth Melville, whoseAne Godlie Dream (1603) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland. Theballad became a recognised literary form by aristocratic authors includingRobert Sempill,Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw andLady Grizel Baillie.
After theUnion in 1707 Scottish literature developed a distinct national identity.Allan Ramsay led a "vernacular revival", the trend forpastoral poetry and developed theHabbie stanza. He was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English who includedWilliam Hamilton of Gilbertfield, Robert Crawford,Alexander Ross,William Hamilton of Bangour,Alison Rutherford Cockburn, andJames Thomson. The eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures includedRob Donn Mackay,Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir,Uilleam Ross andAlasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair, who helped inspire a new form of nature poetry.James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written byOssian.Robert Burns is widely regarded as thenational poet. The most important figure in Scottish Romanticism,Walter Scott, began his literary career as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. Scottish poetry is often seen as entering a period of decline in the nineteenth century, with Scots poetry criticised for its use of parochial dialect, and for its lack of Scottishness in the English tongue. Successful poets includedWilliam Thom, Lady Margaret Maclean Clephane Compton Northampton andThomas Campbell. Among the most influential poets of the later nineteenth wereJames Thomson andJohn Davidson. TheHighland Clearances and widespread emigration weakened Gaelic language and culture and had a profound impact on the nature of Gaelic poetry. Particularly significant was the work of Uilleam Mac Dhun Lèibhe, Seonaidh Phàdraig Iarsiadair and Màiri Mhòr nan Óran.
In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced bymodernism and resurgent nationalism, known as theScottish Renaissance. The leading figure,Hugh MacDiarmid, attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1936) which developed a form ofSynthetic Scots. Other writers connected with the movement includedEdwin Muir andWilliam Soutar. Writers that emerged after the Second World War who wrote in Scots includedRobert Garioch andSydney Goodsir Smith. Those working in English includedNorman MacCaig, George Bruce andMaurice Lindsay andGeorge Mackay Brown. The parallel revitalisation of Gaelic poetry, known as theScottish Gaelic Renaissance was largely due to the work ofSorley Maclean. The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period includedDouglas Dunn,Tom Leonard, andLiz Lochhead. The 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets who became leading figures on the UK stage includingDon Paterson,Robert Crawford,Carol Ann Duffy,Kathleen Jamie andJackie Kay.
Much of the earliestWelsh literature was actually composed in or near the country now called Scotland, in theBrythonic speech, from whichWelsh would be derived. These works were only written down in Wales much later. These includeTheGododdin, considered the earliest surviving verse from Scotland, which is attributed to thebardAneirin, said to have been resident in Bythonic kingdom of Gododdin in the sixth century. It is a series ofelegies to the men of the Gododdin killed fighting at theBattle of Catraeth around 600 AD. Similarly, theBattle of Gwen Ystrad is attributed toTaliesin, traditionally thought to be a bard at the court ofRheged in roughly the same period.[1] Very few works ofGaelic poetry survive from the early medieval period, and most of these are in Irish manuscripts.[2] These include poems in praise of Pictish kings contained within Irishannals.[2]
In Old English there isTheDream of the Rood, from which lines are found on theRuthwell Cross, making it the only surviving fragment ofNorthumbrianOld English from early Medieval Scotland.[3] It has also been suggested on the basis of ornithological references that the poemThe Seafarer was composed somewhere near theBass Rock in East Lothian.[4] InLatin early works include a "Prayer for Protection" attributed to St Mugint, thought to be from the mid-sixth century andAltus Prosator ("The High Creator") attributed to St Columba (c. 597).[5] The most important piece of Scottish hagiography afterAdomnán'sVita Columbae, is the verseLife of St. Ninian, written in Latin inWhithorn, perhaps as early as the eighth century.[6]
TheKingdom of Alba was overwhelmingly an oral society dominated by Gaelic culture. Our fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there would have beenfilidh, who acted as poets, musicians and historians, often attached to the court of a lord or king, and passed on their knowledge and culture in Gaelic to the next generation.[7][8] At least from the accession ofDavid I (r. 1124–53), as part of aDavidian Revolution that introduced French culture and political systems, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French. After this "de-gallicisation" of the Scottish court, a less highly regarded order ofbards took over the functions of the filidh and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century. They often trained in bardic schools, of which a few, like the one run by theMacMhuirich dynasty, who were bards to theLord of the Isles,[9] existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland, until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century.[8] Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry.[10] Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century.[7]
It is possible that moreMiddle Irish literature was written in Medieval Scotland than is often thought, but has not survived because the Gaelic literary establishment of eastern Scotland died out before the fourteenth century.[11] Works that have survived include that of the prolific poetGille Brighde Albanach (fl. 1200–30). HisHeading for Damietta (c. 1218) dealt with his experiences of theFifth Crusade.[12] In the thirteenth century,French flourished as aliterary language, and produced theRoman de Fergus, the earliest piece of non-Celticvernacular literature to survive from Scotland.[13] Many other stories in theArthurian Cycle, written in French and preserved only outside Scotland, are thought by some scholars, including D. D. R. Owen, to have been written in Scotland.[14] In addition to French,Latin was a literary language, with works that include the "Carmen de morte Sumerledi", a poem which exults triumphantly the victory of the citizens of Glasgow over the warlordSomairle mac Gilla Brigte.[15]
The major corpus of Medieval Scottish Gaelic poetry,The Book of the Dean of Lismore was compiled by the brothers James and Donald MacGregor in the early decades of the sixteenth century. Beside Scottish Gaelic verse it contains a large number of poems composed in Ireland as well verse and prose in Scots and Latin. The subject matter includes love poetry, heroic ballads and philosophical pieces. It also is notable for containing poetry by at least four women.[16] These include Aithbhreac Nighean Coirceadail (f. 1460), who wrote a lament for her husband, the constable ofCastle Sween.[17] The first surviving major text in Scots literature isJohn Barbour'sBrus (1375), composed under the patronage of Robert II and telling the story in epic poetry of Robert I's actions before the English invasion until the end of the war of independence.[18] The work was extremely popular among the Scots-speaking aristocracy and Barbour is referred to as the father of Scots poetry, holding a similar place to his contemporaryChaucer in England.[19]
In the early fifteenth century Scots historical works includedAndrew of Wyntoun's verseOrygynale Cronykil of Scotland andBlind Harry'sThe Wallace, which blendedhistorical romance with theverse chronicle. They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were also produced in the period, includingThe Buik of Alexander,Launcelot o the Laik,The Porteous of Noblenes byGilbert Hay[10] andGreysteil, which would remain popular in to the late sixteenth century.[20] Much Middle Scots literature was produced bymakars, poets with links to the royal court, which included James I, who wrote the extended poemThe Kingis Quair. Many of the makars had a university education and so were also connected with theKirk. However,William Dunbar'sLament for the Makaris (c. 1505) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost.[21] Major works includeRichard Holland's satire theBuke of the Howlat (c. 1448).[20] Much of their work survives in a single collection. TheBannatyne Manuscript was collated byGeorge Bannatyne (1545–1608) around 1560 and contains the work of many Scots poets who would otherwise be unknown.[20]
James IV's (r. 1488–1513) creation of aRenaissance court included the patronage of makars who were mainly clerics. These includedRobert Henryson (c. 1450-c. 1505), who re-worked medieval and Classical sources, such asChaucer andAesop in works such as hisTestament of Cresseid andThe Morall Fabillis. William Dunbar (1460–1513) produced satires, lyrics, invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind.Gavin Douglas (1475–1522), who becameBishop of Dunkeld, injectedHumanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry.[22] The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas's version ofVirgil'sAeneid, theEneados. It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in anAnglian language, finished in 1513, but overshadowed by the disaster atFlodden that brought the reign to an end.[10]
As a patron of poets and authorsJames V (r. 1513–42) supported William Stewart andJohn Bellenden, who translated the LatinHistory of Scotland compiled in 1527 byHector Boece, into verse and prose.[23]David Lyndsay (c. 1486–1555), diplomat and the head of theLyon Court, was a prolific poet. He wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires.[22]George Buchanan (1506–82) had a major influence as a Latin poet, founding a tradition of neo-Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century.[24] Contributors to this tradition included royal secretaryJohn Maitland (1537–95), reformerAndrew Melville (1545–1622),John Johnston (1570?–1611) andDavid Hume of Godscroft (1558–1629).[25]
From the 1550s, in the reign ofMary, Queen of Scots (r. 1542–67) and the minority of her sonJames VI (r. 1567–1625), cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil. The Kirk, heavily influenced byCalvinism, also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period includedRichard Maitland of Lethington (1496–1586), who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar;John Rolland (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and ministerAlexander Hume (c. 1556–1609), whose corpus of work includes nature poetry andepistolary verse.Alexander Scott's (?1520-82/3) use of short verse designed to be sung to music, opened the way for the Castilian poets of James VI's adult reign.[22]
Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI actively despised Gaelic culture.[26] However, in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots. His treatise,Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, to which he applied Renaissance principles.[27] He became patron and member of a loose circle of ScottishJacobean court poets and musicians, later called theCastalian Band, which includedWilliam Fowler (c. 1560–1612),John Stewart of Baldynneis (c. 1545–c. 1605), andAlexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–98).[28] They produced poems using French forms, includingsonnets and short sonnets, for narrative, nature description, satire and meditations on love. Later poets that followed in this vein includedWilliam Alexander (c. 1567–1640), Alexander Craig (c. 1567–1627) andRobert Ayton (1570–1627).[22] By the late 1590s the king's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne.[29]
Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England.[30] The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature. A number of Scottish poets, including William Alexander, John Murray and Robert Aytoun accompanied the king to London, where they continued to write,[31] but they soon began toanglicise their written language.[32] James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,[33] but his patronage for thehigh style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined.[34] The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king's departure wasWilliam Drummond of Hawthornden (1585–1649).[35]
As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined, a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge. While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century, the vernacular continued to develop. In contrast to the Classical tradition, which usedsyllabic metre, vernacular poets tended to usestressed metre. However, they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and a common role, as the verse was still often panegyric. A number of these vernacular poets were women,[36] such as Mary MacLeod of Harris (c. 1615–1707).[37]
The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the anthology of theDeliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637), published in Amsterdam byArthur Johnston (c.1579–1641) andSir John Scott of Scotstarvet (1585–1670) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan.[24] This period was marked by the work of female Scottish poets.[35]Elizabeth Melville's (f. 1585–1630)Ane Godlie Dream (1603) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland.[38]Anna Hume, daughter of David Hume of Godscroft, adaptedPetrarch'sTriumphs asTriumphs of Love: Chastitie: Death (1644).[35]
This was the period when theballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland. Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people, such as "Sir Patrick Spens" and "Thomas the Rhymer", that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, but in verses that were not recorded until the modern era.[39] They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed, often asbroadsides and as part ofchapbooks, later being recorded and noted in books by collectors includingRobert Burns andWalter Scott.[40] From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors includingRobert Sempill (c. 1595-c. 1665),Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw (1627–1727) andLady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746).[41]
After the Union in 1707 Scottish literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) was the most important literary figure of the era, often described as leading a "vernacular revival". He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, publishingThe Ever Green (1724), a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period.[42] He led the trend forpastoral poetry, helping to develop theHabbie stanza, which would be later be used byRobert Burns as apoetic form.[43] HisTea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style.[44] Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These includedWilliam Hamilton of Gilbertfield (c. 1665–1751), Robert Crawford (1695–1733),Alexander Ross (1699–1784), the JacobiteWilliam Hamilton of Bangour (1704–54), socialiteAlison Rutherford Cockburn (1712–94), and poet and playwrightJames Thomson (1700–48), most famous for the nature poetry of hisSeasons.[45]
The eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included the satiristRob Donn Mackay (Robert Mackay, 1714–78), the hunter-poetDonnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre, 1724–1812)[37] and Uilleam Ross (William Ross, 1762–90), most noted for his anguished love songs.[46] The most significant poet in the language during this era wasAlasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald, c. 1698–1770), who emerged as theScottish nationalist poet of theJacobite cause and whose poetry marks a shift away from theScottish clan-based tradition of bothwar andpraise poetry.[46] His interest in traditional forms can be seen in hisimmram poemClanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson'sSeasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns.[37]
James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, by claiming to have collected and translated Gaelic poetry written by thedemigodOssian from theFenian Cycle ofCeltic mythology. Macpherson's published translations immediately acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Gaelic equivalent to theClassicalepics ofHomer andVirgil.Fingal was speedily translated into many European languages, and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legends did more than any single work to bring about theRomantic movement in European, and especially inGerman, literature, influencingHerder andGoethe.[47] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but were anadaptation made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[48]
Before Robert Burns the most important Scottish language poet wasRobert Fergusson (1750–48), who also worked in English. His work often celebrated his native Edinburgh, as in his best known poem "Auld Reekie" (1773).[49] Burns (1759–96) was highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. An Ayrshire poet and lyricist, he is widely regarded as thenational poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collectedfolk songs from across Scotland, often revising oradapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung atHogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficialnational anthem of the country.[50] Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge ofClassical,Biblical, andEnglish literature, as well as the ScottishMakar tradition.[51] Burns was skilled in writing not only in theScots language but also in theScottish Englishdialect of theEnglish language. Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects.[52] His themes includedrepublicanism,radicalism,Scottish patriotism,anticlericalism,class inequalities,gender roles, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time,Scottish cultural identity,poverty,sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising.[53]
Major poets writing in the radical tradition of Burns includeAlexander Wilson (1766–1813), whose outspoken views forced him into emigration to the US.[54] Major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poetsJames Hogg (1770–1835) andAllan Cunningham (1784–1842).[55] The most important figure in Scottish Romanticism, Walter Scott (1771–1832), began his literary career as a poet, producing medieval revival pieces in English such as "The lay of the last minstrel" (1805), and also collected and published Scottish ballads, before the success of his first prose work,Waverley in 1814, launched his career as a novelist.[54][56]
Scottish poetry is often seen as entering a period of decline in the nineteenth century, with Scots language poetry criticised for its use of parochial dialect and English poetry for its lack of Scottishness.[57] The main legacy of Burns were the conservative and anti-radicalBurns clubs that sprang up around Scotland, filled with members that praised a sanitised version of Burns and poets who fixated on the "Burns stanza" as a form.William Tennant's (1784–1848) "Anster Fair" (1812) produced a more respectable version of folk revels.[54] Standard critical narratives have seen the descent of Scottish poetry into infantalism as exemplified by the highly popularWhistle Binkie anthologies, which appeared 1830–90 and which notoriously included in one volume "Wee Willie Winkie" byWilliam Miler (1810–72).[54] This tendency has been seen as leading late nineteenth-century Scottish poetry into the sentimental parochialism of theKailyard school.[58]
However, Scotland continued to produce talented and successful poets. Poets from the lower social orders included the weaver-poetWilliam Thom (1799–1848), whose "A chieftain unknown to the Queen" (1843) combined simple Scots language with a social critique ofQueen Victoria's visit to Scotland. From the other end of the social scale Lady Margaret Maclean Clephane Compton Northampton (d. 1830), translated Jacobite verse from the Gaelic and poems byPetrarch andGoethe as well as producing her own original work. Her poemIrene adapts theSpenserian stanza to reflect natural patterns of speech.William Edmondstoune Aytoun (1813–65), eventually appointed Professor of belles lettres at theUniversity of Edinburgh, is best known forThe lays of the Scottish Cavaliers and made use of the ballad form in his poems, includingBothwell. Among the most successful Scottish poets was the Glasgow-bornThomas Campbell (1777–1844), whose produced patriotic British songs, including "Ye Mariners of England", a reworking of "Rule Britannia!", and sentimental but powerful epics on contemporary events, includingGertrude of Wyoming. His works were extensively reprinted in the period 1800–60.[57]
Among the most influential poets of the later nineteenth century that rejected the limitations of Kailyard School wereJames Thomson (1834–82), whose most famous poem "City of Dreadful Night" broke many of the conventions of nineteenth-century poetry andJohn Davidson (1857–1909), whose work, including "The Runable Stag" and "Thirty Bob a Week" were much anthologised, would have a major impact on modernist poets including Hugh MacDiarmid,Wallace Stevens andT. S. Eliot.[58]
TheHighland Clearances and widespread emigration significantly weakened Gaelic language and culture and had a profound impact on the nature of Gaelic poetry. The theme of homeland became prominent. The best poetry in this vein contained a strong element of protest, includingWilliam Livingston (poet) (Uilleam Macdhunleibhe) (1808–70) protest against theIslay clearances in "Fios Thun a' Bhard" ("A Message for the Poet") and Seonaidh Phàdraig Iarsiadair's (John Smith, 1848–81) long emotional condemnation of those responsible for the clearancesSpiord a' Charthannais. The best known Gaelic poet of the era was Màiri Mhòr nan Óran (Mary MacPherson, 1821–98), whose verse was criticised for a lack of intellectual weight, but which embodies the spirit of the land agitation of the 1870s and 1880s and whose evocation of place and mood has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets.[37]
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In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced bymodernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance.[59] The leading figure in the movement wasHugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve, 1892–1978). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1936), developing a form ofSynthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms.[59] Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poetsEdwin Muir (1887–1959) andWilliam Soutar (1898–1943), who pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.[59] Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, includingRobert Garioch (1909–81) andSydney Goodsir Smith (1915–75). Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry, among themNorman MacCaig (1910–96), George Bruce (1909–2002) andMaurice Lindsay (1918–2009).[59]George Mackay Brown (1921–96) from Orkney, wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by his distinctive island background.[59] The Glaswegian poetEdwin Morgan (1920–2010) became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages. He was also the firstScots Makar (the officialnational poet), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.[60]
The parallel revitalisation of Gaelic poetry, known as theScottish Gaelic Renaissance was largely due to the work ofSorley Maclean (Somhairle MacGill-Eain, 1911–96). A native of Skye and a native Gaelic speaker, he abandoned the stylistic conventions of the tradition and opened up new possibilities for composition with his poemDàin do Eimhir (Poems to Eimhir, 1943). His work inspired a new generation to take upnea bhardachd (the new poetry). These includedGeorge Campbell Hay (Deòrsa Mac Iain Dheòrsa, 1915–84), Lewis-born poetsDerick Thomson (Ruaraidh MacThòmais, 1921–2012) andIain Crichton Smith (Iain Mac a' Ghobhainn, 1928–98). They all focused on the issues of exile, the fate of the Gaelic language and bi-culturalism.[37]
The mid-twentieth century also saw some much acclaimed poetry being written inEsperanto by what would become known as the "Skota Skolo" (Scottish School), which includedWilliam Auld (1924–2006), John Dinwoodie (1904–80),Reto Rossetti (1909–94), and John Francis (1924–2012). Influenced by the Hungarian poetKálmán Kalocsay (1891–1976), they published an important collection,Kvaropo, together in 1952.[61] Inspired in part by theCantos of American poetEzra Pound, Auld would publishLa infana raso in 1956, widely regarded as one of the most important literary works in the language,[62] for which he was nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature on three occasions, the first esperantist to be nominated.[63][64]
The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period includedDouglas Dunn (b. 1942), whose work has often seen a coming to terms with class and national identity within the formal structures of poetry and commenting on contemporary events, as inBarbarians (1979) andNorthlight (1988). His most personal work is contained in the collection ofElegies (1985), which deal with the death of his first wife from cancer.[46]Tom Leonard (b. 1944), works in theGlaswegian dialect, pioneering the working class voice in Scottish poetry, although what has been described as his finest work "A priest came on at Merkland Street" is in English.[65] Like his friend Leonard,Aonghas MacNeacail (Angus Nicolson, b. 1942), amongst the most prominent post-war Gaelic poets, was influenced by new American poetry, particularly theBlack Mountain School.[66]Liz Lochhead (b. 1947) also explored the lives of working-class people of Glasgow, but added an appreciation of female voices within a sometimes male dominated society.[46] The 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, includingDon Paterson (b. 1953),Robert Crawford (b. 1959),Carol Ann Duffy (b. 1955),Kathleen Jamie (b. 1962) andJackie Kay (b. 1961).[59]Dundonians Paterson and Crawford have both produced esoteric work, which includes Paterson's ironically self-aware verse and Crawford's a metaphorically colourful re-imagining of Scottish history.[46] Kathleen Jamie has explored female aspirations, drawing on her experiences growing up in ruralRenfrewshire and Jackie Kay has drawn on her experiences as a black child adopted by a working class Glasgow family.[46] Glasgow-born Duffy was named asPoet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post.[67]
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