While Pluto is commonly considered theRoman equivalent of Hades, the namePlouton was already used by theGreeks to designate Hades and was lateradopted by theRomans for their god of the underworld,Dis Pater, which often means "Rich Father" and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure godOrcus, name that the Romans adopted from theEtruscans and which, like Hades, was both for the god of the underworld and for the underworld as a place. On the other hand, Ploutōn was frequentlyconflated withPloûtos, the Greek god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground and because, as achthonic god, Pluto ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds needed for a bountiful harvest.
Pluto andHades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share two dominant myths. In Greekcosmogony, the god received the rule of theunderworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brotherZeus ruling the sky and his other brotherPoseidon sovereign over the sea. His central narrative in myth is of him abductingPersephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.[3]Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears inGreek literature of theClassical period, in the works of theAthenian playwrights and of the philosopherPlato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of aquest-object, and especially in the descent ofOrpheus or otherheroes to the underworld.[4]
The namePloutōn does not appear in Greek literature of theArchaic period.[5] InHesiod'sTheogony, the six children ofCronus andRhea areZeus,Hera,Poseidon,Hades,Demeter, andHestia. The male children divide the world into three realms. Hades takes Persephone by force from her mother Demeter, with the consent of Zeus.Ploutos, "Wealth," appears in theTheogony as the child of Demeter andIasion: "fine Plutus, who goes upon the whole earth and the broad back of the sea, and whoever meets him and comes into his hands, that man he makes rich, and he bestows much wealth upon him." The union of Demeter and Iasion, described also in theOdyssey,[6] took place in afallow field that had been ploughed three times, in what seems to be a reference to aritual copulation orsympathetic magic to ensure the earth's fertility.[7] "The resemblance of the namePloutos toPlouton ...," it has been noted, "cannot be accidental. Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone's husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility."[8] Demeter's son Plutus merges in the narrative tradition with her son-in-law Pluto, redefining the implacable chariot-driver Hades whose horses trample the flowering earth.[9]
Ploutōn came into widespread usage with theEleusinian Mysteries, in which Pluto was venerated as both a stern ruler and a loving husband to Persephone. The couple received souls in the afterlife and are invoked together in religious inscriptions, being referred to asPlouton and asKore respectively. Hades, by contrast, had few temples and religious practices associated with him, and he is portrayed as the dark and violent abductor of Persephone.
Plouton was one of severaleuphemistic names for Hades, described in theIliad as the god most hateful to mortals.[10]Plato says that people prefer the namePlouton, "giver of wealth," because the name ofHades is fear-provoking.[11] The name was understood as referring to "the boundless riches of the earth, both the crops on its surface—he was originally a god of the land—and the mines hidden within it."[12] What is sometimes taken as "confusion" of the two godsPlouton andPloutos ("Wealth") held or acquired a theological significance in antiquity. As a lord of abundance or riches, Pluto expresses the aspect of the underworld god that was positive, symbolized in art by the "horn of plenty" (cornucopia),[13] by means of whichPlouton is distinguished from the gloomier Hades.[14]
Plūtō (genitivePlūtōnis) is theRomanized form of theGreekPlouton, being used by the Romans to name their deity of thedead and theunderworld, who was also known asOrcus orDite and equivalent to Greek godHades. Both Orcus and Dite are names for the underworld in Roman mythology. Pluto is also calledFebruus because he presides over the purgation of souls.[23] Although this god receives all things into his bosom, he is never satiated. Thus he is called Vedius, 'evil god', Veyovis, 'evilJupiter'[24] and Styx Jupiter.[25] Black cattle are sacrificed to Pluto because sacrificial animals are chosen for divinities by resemblance or by contrast.[26] Some even allege that Pluto and Glauca, born ofSaturn andOps, were twin brothers.
The Roman poetEnnius (ca. 239–169 BC), the leading figure in theHellenization ofLatin literature, considered Pluto a Greek god to be explained in terms of the Roman equivalentsDis Pater andOrcus.[27] It is unclear whether Pluto had a literary presence in Rome before Ennius. Some scholars think that rituals and beliefs pertaining to Pluto entered Roman culture with the establishment of theSaecular Games in 249 BC, and thatDis pater was only a translation ofPlouton.[28] In the mid-1st century BC,Cicero identifies Pluto with Dis, explaining that "The earth in all its power and plenty is sacred to Father Dis, a name which is the same asDives, 'The Wealthy One,' as is the GreekPlouton. This is because everything is born of the earth and returns to it again."[29]
During theRoman Imperial era, the Greek geographerStrabo (1st century AD) makes a distinction between Pluto and Hades. In writing of the mineral wealth of ancientIberia (Roman Spain), he says that among theTurdetani, it is "Pluto, and not Hades, who inhabits the region down below."[30] In the discourseOn Mourning by the Greek authorLucian (2nd century AD), Pluto's "wealth" is the dead he rules over in theabyss(chasma); the nameHades is reserved for the underworld itself.[31]
Pluto (1592) byAgostino Carracci, probably influenced by the description inVincenzo Cartari's mythography,[32] with the god holding his scepter and key,Cerberus at his sideStatue of Pluto abducting Proserpina. Karlsaue Park inKassel, Germany
The best-known myth involving Pluto or Hades is the abduction ofProserpina orPersephone, also known as Kore ("the Maiden"). The earliest literary versions of the myth are a brief mention in Hesiod'sTheogony and the extended narrative of theHomeric Hymn to Demeter; in both these works, the ruler of the underworld is named as Hades ("the Hidden One"). Hades is an unsympathetic figure, and Persephone's unwillingness is emphasized.[33] Increased usage of the namePlouton in religious inscriptions and literary texts reflects the influence of theEleusinian Mysteries, which treated Pluto and Persephone as a divine couple who received initiates in the afterlife; as such, Pluto was disassociated from the "violent abductor" of Kore.[34] Two early works that give the abductor god's name as Pluto are the Greekmythography traditionally known as theLibrary of "Apollodorus" (1st century BC)[35] and the LatinFabulae (ca. 64 BC–AD 17).[36]
The most influential version of the abduction myth is that ofOvid (d. 17 or 18 AD), who tells the story in both theMetamorphoses (Book 5) and theFasti (Book 4).[37] Another major retelling, also in Latin, is the long unfinished poemDe raptu Proserpinae ("On the Abduction of Proserpina") byClaudian (d. 404 AD). Ovid uses the nameDis, notPluto in these two passages,[38] and Claudian usesPluto only once; translators andeditors, however, sometimes supply the more familiar "Pluto" when other epithets appear in thesource text.[39] The abduction myth was a popular subject forGreek andRoman art, and recurs throughout Western art and literature, where the name "Pluto" becomes common (seePluto in Western art and literature below). Narrative details from Ovid and Claudian influence these later versions in which the abductor is named as Pluto, especially the role ofVenus andCupid in manipulating Pluto with love and desire.[40] Throughout theMiddle Ages andRenaissance, and certainly by the time ofNatale Conti's influentialMythologiae (1567), the traditions pertaining to the various rulers of the classical underworld coalesced into asingle mythology that made few if any distinctions among Hades, Pluto, Dis, and Orcus.
The main episodes are told to us inHyginus's Fables. It is said thatSaturn andOps gave birth to Pluto and his five siblings:Neptune,Jupiter,Ceres,Vesta, andJuno.[41] After Ops had fathered Jupiter through Saturn, Juno asked him if he would give him up to her, since Saturn had cast Orcus (Pluto) intoTartarus and Neptune into the sea, knowing that one of his sons could steal his power.[42] After Jupiter expelled their father from the kingdom, the three brothers divided the entire world among themselves by lot: Jupiter took possession of the sky, Neptune the sea, and Pluto the underworld. There are indications that individual brothers have power in the kingdom: Jupiter has a thunderbolt made of three parts, Neptune a trident, and Pluto athree-headed hound.[43]
Pluto asked Jupiter if he would give himProserpina, the daughter of Ceres, in marriage. Jupiter claimed that Ceres would not allow her daughter to live in gloomy Tartarus, but instead abducted her while she was picking flowers onMount Etna, located inSicily. While Proserpina was picking flowers withVenus,Diana, andMinerva, Pluto appeared in his chariot drawn by four horses and abducted her. Ceres later obtained Jupiter's permission for Persephone to spend half the year with her mother and the other half with Pluto.[44]
When Jupiter saw thatTheseus andPirithous possessed such audacity as to expose themselves to danger, he spoke to them in a dream, allowing them to request Proserpina in marriage from Pluto on behalf of Pirithous. When they had descended to the land of the dead through the Taenarus peninsula, and had informed Pluto that they had arrived, they were captured and tortured for a long time by theFuries. WhenHercules (Heracles) came to this place to obtain the three-headed dog, they begged his promise of help. However, he obtained Pluto's permission, and he carried them off unharmed.
Unlike his freely procreating brothersJupiter (Zeus) andNeptune (Poseidon), Pluto ismonogamous, and is rarely said to have children.[45] InOrphic texts,[46] the chthonic nymphMelinoe is the daughter of Persephone by Zeus disguised as Pluto,[47] and theEumenides ("The Kindly Ones") are the offspring of Persephone andZeus Chthonios, often identified as Pluto.[48] TheAugustan poetVergil says that Pluto is the father of theFuries,[49] but the mother is the goddess Nox (Nyx),[50] not his wife Persephone.The lack of a clear distinction between Pluto and "chthonic Zeus" confuses the question of whether in some traditions, now obscure, Persephone bore children to her husband. In the late 4th century AD, Claudian's epic on the abduction motivates Pluto with a desire for children. The poem is unfinished, however, and anything Claudian may have known of these traditions is lost.[51]
Justin Martyr (2nd century AD) alludes to children of Pluto, but neither names nor enumerates them.[52]Hesychius (5th century AD) mentions a "son of Pluto."[53] In his 14th-century mythography,Boccaccio records a tradition in which Pluto was the father of the divine personification Veneratio ("Reverence"), noting that she had no mother becauseProserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) was sterile.[54]
InThe Faerie Queene (1590s),Edmund Spenser invents a daughter for Pluto whom he calls Lucifera.[55] The character's name was taken from the 16th-century mythography of Natale Conti, who used it as the Latin translation of Greekphosphor, "light-bearer," a regular epithet ofHecate.[56] Spenser incorporated aspects of the mysteries intoThe Faerie Queene.[57] Lucifera is also one ofDiana's epithets, as goddess of moonlight.
Orpheus was regarded as a founder and prophet of the mysteries called "Orphic," "Dionysiac," or "Bacchic." Mythologized for his ability to entrance even animals and trees with his music, he was also credited in antiquity with the authorship of the lyrics that have survived as theOrphic Hymns, among them ahymn to Pluto. Orpheus's voice and lyre-playing represented a medium of revelation or higher knowledge for the mystery cults.[58]
In his central myth, Orpheusvisits the underworld in the hope of retrieving his bride,Eurydice, relying on the power of his music to charm the king and queen of Hades. Greek narratives of Orpheus's descent and performance typically name the ruler of the underworld asPlouton, as for instance in theBibliotheca.[59] The myth demonstrates the importance of Pluto "the Rich" as the possessor of a quest-object. Orpheus performing before Pluto and Persephone was a common subject of ancient and later Western literature and art, and one of the most significant mythological themes of theclassical tradition.[60]
The demonstration of Orpheus's power depends on the normal obduracy of Pluto; theAugustan poetHorace describes him as incapable of tears.[61] Claudian, however, portrays the steely god as succumbing to Orpheus's song so that "with iron cloak he wipes his tears"(ferrugineo lacrimas deterget amictu), an image renewed byMilton inIl Penseroso (106–107): "Suchnotes ... / Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek."[62]
The Greek writerLucian (ca. 125–after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto's love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death.[63] In one of Lucian'sDialogues of the Dead, Pluto questionsProtesilaus, the first Greek hero killed in theTrojan War, who wishes to return to the world of the living. "You are then in love with life?", Pluto asks. "Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain." Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even theLethe's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and toAlcestis, who took her husband's place in death and then was permitted at the insistence ofHeracles to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.[64]
Hydria (ca. 340 BC) depicting figures from the Eleusinian Mysteries
As Pluto gained importance as an embodiment of agricultural wealth within the Eleusinian Mysteries, from the 5th century BC onward the name Hades was increasingly reserved for the underworld as a place.[65] Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditionalTwelve Olympians, and Hades seems to have received limited cult,[66] perhaps only atElis, where the temple was opened once a year.[67] During the time ofPlato, the Athenians periodically honored the god calledPlouton with the "strewing of a couch"(tên klinên strôsai).[68] AtEleusis,Plouton had his own priestess.[69] Pluto was worshipped with Persephone as a divine couple atKnidos,Ephesos,Mytilene, andSparta as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God(Theos) and Goddess(Thea).[70]
In the ritual texts of themystery religions preserved by the so-calledOrphic orBacchicgold tablets, from the late 5th century BC onward[71] the nameHades appears more frequently thanPlouton, but in reference to the underground place:[72]Plouton is the ruler who presides over it in a harmonious partnership[73] with Persephone.[74] By the end of the 4th century BC, the namePlouton appears in Greek metrical inscriptions.[75] Two fragmentary tablets greet Pluto and Persephone jointly,[76] and the divine couple appear as welcoming figures in a metricalepitaph:
I know that even below the earth, if there is indeed a reward for the worthy ones, the first and foremost honors, nurse,[77] shall be yours, next to Persephone and Pluto.[78]
Hesychius identifies Pluto withEubouleus,[79] but other ancient sources distinguish between these two underworld deities. In the Mysteries Eubouleus plays the role of a torchbearer, possibly a guide for the initiate's return.[80] In the view ofLewis Richard Farnell, Eubouleus was originally a title referring to the "good counsel" the ruler of the underworld was able to give and which was sought at Pluto'sdream oracles; by the 2nd century BC, however, he had acquired a separate identity.[81]
TheOrphic Hymn to Pluto addresses the god as "strong-spirited" and the "All-Receiver" who commands death and is the master of mortals. His titles are given asZeus Chthonios andEuboulos ("Good Counsel").[82] In the hymn'stopography, Pluto's dwelling is inTartarus, simultaneously a "meadow" and "thick-shaded and dark," where theAcheron encircles "the roots of the earth."Hades is again the name of the place, here described as "windless," and its gates, through which Pluto carried "pure Demeter's daughter" as his bride, are located in anAttic cave within the district ofEleusis. The route from Persephone's meadow to Hades crosses the sea. The hymn concludes:
You alone were born to judge deeds obscure and conspicuous. Holiest and illustrious ruler of all, frenzied god, You delight in the worshiper's respect and reverence. Come with favor and joy to the initiates. I summon you.[83]
The hymn is one of several examples of Greco-Roman prayer that express a desire for the presence of a deity, and has been compared to a similarepiclesis in theActs of Thomas.[84]
The names of both Hades and Pluto appear also in theGreek Magical Papyri andcurse tablets, with Hades typically referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto regularly invoked as the partner of Persephone.[85] Five Latin curse tablets from Rome, dating to the mid-1st century BC, promise Persephone and Pluto an offering of "dates,figs, and a blackpig" if the curse is fulfilled by the desired deadline. The pig was a characteristicanimal sacrifice to chthonic deities, whosevictims were almost always black or dark in color.[86]
A set of curse tablets written inDoric Greek and found in a tomb addresses a Pasianax, "Lord to All,"[87] sometimes taken as a title of Pluto,[88] but more recently thought to be a magical name for the corpse.[89]Pasianax is found elsewhere as an epithet of Zeus, or in the tablets may invoke adaimon likeAbrasax.[90]
TheRomans placed Pluto not only among the twelve great gods but also among the eight chosen gods, who were the only ones permitted to be represented in gold, silver, and ivory.
In Rome, there were sacrificial priests dedicated solely to Pluto. Like the Greek Hades, only dark-skinned victims were sacrificed to him, and always in even numbers, while other gods were sacrificed in odd numbers. The sacrifices were completely reduced to ashes, and the priest reserved nothing, neither for the people nor for himself. Before the immolations, a pit was dug to collect the blood and the wine from the libations was poured into it. During the sacrifices, the priests kept their heads uncovered, and absolute silence was recommended to those who attended, more out of respect than fear of the god.
In Sicily, theSyracusans sacrificed two black bulls to him each year near the fountain ofCyane, where tradition places the abduction of Proserpina. In Rome, on June 20th, his feast day, only the temple of Pluto was open. Dark-furred animals (sheep or pigs) were sacrificed to him, and all those condemned to death were dedicated to his unyielding wrath.
A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called aploutonion (Latinplutonium). The complex atEleusis for the mysteries had a ploutonion regarded as the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos, in another instance of conflation or close association of the two gods.[91]Greek inscriptions record an altar of Pluto, which was to be "plastered", that is, resurfaced for a new round of sacrifices at Eleusis.[92] One of the known ploutonia was in thesacred grove betweenTralleis andNysa, where a temple of Pluto and Persephone was located. Visitors sought healing anddream oracles.[93] The ploutonion atHierapolis,Phrygia, was connected to the rites ofCybele, but during theRoman Imperial era was subsumed by the cult ofApollo, as confirmed by archaeological investigations during the 1960s. It too was a dream oracle.[94] The sites often seem to have been chosen because the presence of naturally occurringmephitic vapors was thought to indicate an opening to the underworld.[95] In Italy,Avernus was considered an entrance to the underworld that produced toxic vapors, but Strabo seems not to think that it was a ploutonion.[96]
Kevin Clinton attempted to distinguish the iconography of Hades, Plouton, Ploutos, and the EleusinianTheos in 5th-centuryvase painting that depicts scenes from or relating to the mysteries. In Clinton's schema, Plouton is a mature man, sometimes even white-haired; Hades is also usually bearded and mature, but his darkness is emphasized in literary descriptions, represented in art by dark hair. Plouton's most common attribute is asceptre, but he also often holds a full or overflowing cornucopia; Hades sometimes holds a horn, but it is depicted with no contents and should be understood as adrinking horn. Unlike Plouton, Hades never holds agrarian attributes such as stalks of grain. His chest is usually bare or only partly covered, whereas Plouton is fully robed (exceptions, however, are admitted by the author). Plouton stands, often in the company of both Demeter and Kore, or sometimes one of the goddesses, but Hades almost always sits or reclines, usually with Persephone facing him.[97] "Confusion and disagreement" about the interpretation of these images remain.[98]
Attributes of Pluto mentioned in theOrphic Hymn to Pluto are hisscepter, keys, throne, and horses. In the hymn, the keys are connected to his capacity for giving wealth to humanity, specifically the agricultural wealth of "the year's fruits."
Pausanias explains the significance of Pluto's key in describing a wondrously carved cedar chest at the Temple ofHera in Elis. Numerous deities are depicted, with one panel grouping Dionysus, Persephone, thenymphs and Pluto. Pluto holds a key because "they say that what is called Hades has been locked up by Pluto, and that nobody will return back again therefrom."[99]Natale Conti cites Pausanias in noting that keys are an attribute of Pluto as the scepter is ofJove (Greek Zeus) and thetrident ofNeptune (Poseidon).[100]
A golden key(chrusea klês) was laid on the tongue of initiates by priests at Eleusis[101] and was a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret.[102] A key is among the attributes of other infernal deities such asHecate,Anubis, and Persephone, and those who act as guardians or timekeepers, such asJanus andAion.[103]Aeacus(Aiakos), one of the three mortal kings who becamejudges in the afterlife, is also akleidouchos (κλειδοῦχος), "holder of the keys," and a priestly doorkeeper in the court of Pluto and Persephone.[104]
According to theStoic philosopherCornutus (1st century AD), Pluto wore a wreath ofphasganion, more often calledxiphion,[105] traditionally identified as a type ofgladiolus.[106]Dioscorides recorded medical uses for the plant. For extractingstings andthorns,xiphion was mixed with wine andfrankincense to make acataplasm. The plant was also used as anaphrodisiac[107] andcontraceptive.[108] It grew in humid places. In an obscure passage, Cornutus seems to connect Pluto's wearing ofphasganion to an etymology forAvernus, which he derives from the word for "air," perhaps through some association with the colorglaukos, "bluish grey," "greenish" or "sea-colored," which might describe the plant's leaves. Because the color could describe the sky, Cornutus regularly gives it divine connotations.[109] Pluto's twin sister was namedGlauca.
Ambiguity of color is characteristic of Pluto. Although both he and his realm are regularly described as dark, black, or gloomy, the god himself is sometimes seen as pale or having a pallor.Martianus Capella (5th century) describes him as both "growing pale in shadow, a fugitive from light" and actively "shedding darkness in the gloom ofTartarean night," crowned with a wreath made ofebony as suitable for the kingdom he governs.[110] The horses of Pluto are usually black, but Ovid describes them as "sky-colored" (caeruleus, fromcaelum, "sky"), which might be blue, greenish-blue, or dark blue.[111]
TheRenaissance mythographerNatale Conti says wreaths ofnarcissus,maidenhair fern(adianthus), andcypress were given to Pluto.[112] In theHomeric Hymn to Demeter,Gaia (Earth) produced the narcissus at Zeus's request as a snare for Persephone; when she grasps it, a chasm opens up and the "Host to Many" (Hades) seizes her.[113] Narcissus wreaths were used in early times to crown Demeter and Persephone, as well as the Furies (Eumenides).[114] The flower was associated with narcotic drugginess (narkê, "torpor"),[115]erotic fascination,[116] and imminent death;[117] to dream of crowning oneself with narcissus was a bad sign.[118] In themyth of Narcissus, the flower is created when a beautiful, self-absorbed youth rejects sexuality and is condemned to perpetual self-love along theStyx.[119]
Conti's inclusion ofadianthus (Adiantum in modern nomenclature) is less straightforward. The name, meaning "unmoistened" (Greekadianton), was taken in antiquity to refer to the fern's ability to repel water. The plant, which grew in wet places, was also calledcapillus veneris, "hair of Venus," divinely dry when she emerged from the sea.[120]Historian of medicineJohn M. Riddle has suggested that theadianthus was one of the ferns Dioscorides calledasplenon and prescribed as a contraceptive(atokios).[121] The associations of Proserpine (Persephone) and the maidenhair are alluded to bySamuel Beckett in a 1946 poem, in which theself is aPlatonic cave withcapillaires, in French both "maidenhair fern" and "blood vessels".[122]
Pediment of an ancient Greek temple with a symposium scene of Dionysus and Pluto, 500s BC,Archaeological Museum of Corfu.
The cypress (Greekcyparissus, Latincupressus) has traditional associations with mourning.[123] In ancientAttica, households in mourning were garlanded with cypress,[124] and it was used to fumigate the air duringcremations.[125] In the myth ofCyparissus, a youth was transformed into a cypress, consumed by grief over the accidental death of a petstag.[126] A "white cypress" is part of the topography of the underworld that recurs in theOrphic gold tablets as a kind of beacon near the entrance, perhaps to be compared with theTree of Life in various world mythologies. The description of the cypress as "white" (Greekleukē), since the botanical tree is dark, is symbolic, evoking the white garments worn by initiates or the clothing of a corpse, or the pallor of the dead. In Orphic funeral rites, it was forbidden to make coffins of cypress.[127]
The tradition of the mystery religions favors Pluton/Hades as a loving and faithful partner to Persephone, but one ancient myth that preserves a lover for him parallels the abduction and also has a vegetative aspect.[128] A Roman source says that Pluto fell in love withLeuca (GreekLeukē, "White"), the most beautiful of the nymphs, and abducted her to live with him in his realm. After the long span of her life came to its end, he memorialized their love by creating a white tree in theElysian Fields. The tree was thewhite poplar (Greekleukē), the leaves of which are white on one side and dark on the other, representing the duality of upper and underworld.[129] A wreath of white poplar leaves was fashioned by Heracles to mark hisascent from the underworld, anaition for why it was worn by initiates[130] and by champion athletes participating infuneral games.[131] Like other plants associated with Pluto, white poplar was regarded as a contraceptive in antiquity.[132] The relation of this tree to the white cypress of the mysteries is debated.[133]
TheBibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus uses the namePlouton instead ofHades in relating the tripartite division of sovereignty, the abduction of Persephone, and the visit of Orpheus to the underworld. This version of the theogony for the most part follows Hesiod (seeabove), but adds that the three brothers were each given a gift by theCyclopes to use intheir battle against theTitans: Zeus thunder and lightning; Poseidon atrident; and Pluto a helmet(kyneê).[134]
The helmet Pluto receives is presumably the magicalCap of Invisibility(aidos kyneê), but theBibliotheca is the only ancient source that explicitly says it belonged to Pluto.[135] The verbal play ofaidos, "invisible," andHades is thought to account for this attribution of the helmet to the ruler of the underworld, since no ancient narratives record his use or possession of it. Later authors such asRabelais (16th century) do attribute the helmet to Pluto.[136]Erasmus calls it the "helmet of Orcus"[137] and gives it as afigure of speech referring to those who conceal their true nature by a cunning device.Francis Bacon notes the proverbial usage: "the helmet of Pluto, which maketh the politic man go invisible, is secrecy in the counsel, andcelerity in the execution."[138]
No ancient image of the ruler of the underworld can be said with certainty to show him with abident,[139] though the ornamented tip of his scepter may have been misunderstood at times as a bident.[140] In the Roman world, the bident (frombi-, "two" +dent-, "teeth") was an agricultural implement. It may also represent one of thethree types of lightning wielded byJupiter, the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and the EtruscanTinia. The later notion that the ruler of the underworld wielded a trident or bident can perhaps be traced to a line inSeneca'sHercules Furens ("Hercules Enraged"), in which Father Dis, the Roman counterpart of Pluto, uses a three-pronged spear to drive offHercules as he attempts to invade Pylos. Seneca calls Dis the "Infernal Jove"[141] or the "dire Jove"[142] (the Jove who gives dire or ill omens,dirae), just as in the Greek tradition,Plouton is sometimes identified as a "chthonic Zeus." That the trident and bident might be somewhat interchangeable is suggested by a Byzantinescholiast, who mentions Poseidon being armed with a bident.[143]
In the Middle Ages, classical underworld figures began to be depicted with a pitchfork.[144]Early Christian writers had identified the classical underworld with Hell, and its denizens as demons or devils.[145] In the Renaissance, the bident became a conventional attribute of Pluto. In an influential ceiling mural depicting thewedding of Cupid and Psyche, painted byRaphael's workshop for theVilla Farnesina in 1517, Pluto is shown holding the bident, withCerberus at his side, while Neptune holds the trident.[146] Perhaps influenced by this work,Agostino Carracci originally depicted Pluto with a bident in a preparatory drawing forhis paintingPluto (1592), in which the god ended up holding his characteristic key.[147] InCaravaggio'sGiove, Nettuno e Plutone (ca. 1597), a ceiling mural based onalchemical allegory, it is Neptune who holds the bident.[148]
The namePlouton is first used inGreek literature byAthenian playwrights.[67] InAristophanes'comedyThe Frogs (Batrachoi, 405 BC), in which "the Eleusinian colouring is in fact so pervasive,"[151] the ruler of the underworld is one of the characters, under the name ofPlouton. The play depicts a mockdescent to the underworld by the godDionysus to bring back one of the deadtragic playwrights in the hope of restoringAthenian theater to its former glory. Pluto is a silent presence onstage for about 600 lines presiding over a contest among the tragedians, then announces that the winner has the privilege of returning to theupper world.[152] The play also draws on beliefs and imagery from Orphic and Dionysiac cult, and rituals pertaining to Ploutos (Plutus, "wealth").[153] In a fragment from another play by Aristophanes, a character "is comically singing of the excellent aspects of being dead", asking in reference to the tripartition of sovereignty over the world:
And where do you think Pluto gets his name [i.e. "rich"], if not because he took the best portion? ... How much better are things below than what Zeus possesses![154]
To Plato, the god of the underworld was "an agent in [the] beneficent cycle of death and rebirth" meriting worship under the name ofPlouton, a giver of spiritual wealth.[155] In the dialogueCratylus, Plato hasSocrates explain the etymology ofPlouton, saying that Pluto gives wealth (ploutos), and his name means "giver of wealth, which comes out of the earth beneath". Because the name Hades is taken to mean "the invisible", people fear what they cannot see; although they are in error about the nature of this deity's power, Socrates says, "the office and name of the God really correspond":
He is the perfect and accomplishedSophist, and the great benefactor of the inhabitants of the other world; and even to us who are upon earth he sends from below exceeding blessings. For he has much more than he wants down there; wherefore he is called Pluto (or the rich). Note also, that he will have nothing to do with men while they are in the body, but only when the soul is liberated from the desires and evils of the body. Now there is a great deal of philosophy and reflection in that; for in their liberated state he can bind them with the desire of virtue, but while they are flustered and maddened by the body, not even fatherCronos himself would suffice to keep them with him in his own far-famed chains.[156]
Since "the union of body and soul is not better than the loosing,"[157] death is not an evil.Walter Burkert thus sees Pluto as a "god of dissolution."[158] Among the titles of Pluto wasIsodaitēs, "divider into equal portions," a title that connects him to the fate goddesses theMoirai.[159]Isodaitēs was also a cult title for Dionysus andHelios.[160]
In ordering his ideal city, Plato proposed a calendar in which Pluto was honored as a benefactor in the twelfth month, implicitly ranking him as one of the twelve principal deities.[161] In theAttic calendar, the twelfth month, more or less equivalent to June, wasSkirophorion; the name may be connected to the rape of Persephone.[162]
In the theogony ofEuhemerus (4th century BC), the gods were treated as mortal rulers whose deeds were immortalized by tradition. Ennius translated Euhemerus into Latin about a hundred years later, and a passage from his version was in turn preserved by theearly Christian writerLactantius.[163] Here the union ofSaturn (the Roman equivalent ofCronus) andOps, anItalic goddess of abundance, producesJupiter (Greek Zeus),Juno (Hera), Neptune, Pluto, andGlauca:
Then Saturn took Ops to wife.Titan, the elder brother, demanded the kingship for himself.Vesta their mother, with their sistersCeres [Demeter] andOps, persuaded Saturn not to give way to his brother in the matter. Titan was less good-looking than Saturn; for that reason, and also because he could see his mother and sisters working to have it so, he conceded the kingship to Saturn, and came to terms with him: if Saturn had a male child born to him, it would not be reared. This was done to secure reversion of the kingship to Titan's children. They then killed the first son that was born to Saturn. Next came twin children, Jupiter and Juno. Juno was given to Saturn to see while Jupiter was secretly removed and given to Vesta to be brought up without Saturn's knowledge. In the same way without Saturn knowing, Ops boreNeptune and hid him away. In her third labor Ops bore another set of twins, Pluto and Glauce. (Pluto in Latin is Dis pater;[164] some call him Orcus.) Saturn was shown his daughter Glauce but his son Pluto was hidden and removed. Glauce then died young. That is the pedigree, as written, of Jupiter and his brothers; that is how it has been passed down to us in holy scripture.
In this theogony, which Ennius introduced into Latin literature, Saturn, "Titan,"[165] Vesta, Ceres, and Ops are siblings; Glauca is the twin of Pluto and dies mysteriously young. There are several mythological figures named Glauca; the sister of Pluto may be the Glauca who in Cicero's account of the three aspects ofDiana conceived the third with the equally mysterious Upis.[166] This is the genealogy for Pluto thatBoccaccio used in hisGenealogia Deorum Gentilium and in his lectures explicating theDivine Comedy ofDante.[167]
In Book 3 of theSibylline Oracles, dating mostly to the 2nd century AD,Rhea gives birth to Pluto as she passes byDodona, "where the watery paths of the River Europus flowed, and the water ran into the sea, merged with thePeneius. This is also called theStygian river."[168]
The Orphic theogonies are notoriously varied,[169] and Orphic cosmology influenced the varyingGnostic theogonies oflate antiquity.[170]Clementine literature (4th century AD) preserves a theogony with explicit Orphic influence that also draws onHesiod, yielding a distinctive role for Pluto. When the primordial elements came together by orderly cyclonic force, they produced a generative sphere, the "egg" from which the primeval Orphic entityPhanes is born and the world is formed. The release of Phanes and his ascent to the heavenly top of theworld-egg causes the matter left in the sphere to settle in relation to weight, creating the tripartite world of the traditional theogonies:[171]
Its lower part, the heaviest element, sinks downwards, and is called Pluto because of its gravity, weight, and great quantity (plêthos) of matter. After the separation of this heavy element in the middle part of the egg the waters flow together, which they call Poseidon. The purest and noblest element, the fire, is called Zeus, because its nature is glowing (ζέουσα,zeousa). It flies right up into the air, and draws up the spirit, now calledMetis, that was left in the underlying moisture. And when this spirit has reached the summit of theether, it is devoured by Zeus, who in his turn begets the intelligence (σύνεσις,sunesis), also calledPallas. And by this artistic intelligence the etherial artificer creates the whole world. This world is surrounded by the air, which extends from Zeus, the very hot ether, to the earth; this air is calledHera.[172]
This cosmogony interprets Hesiod allegorically, and so the heaviest element is identified not as the Earth, but as the netherworld of Pluto.[173] (In moderngeochemistry,plutonium is the heaviestprimordial element.) Supposed etymologies are used to make sense of the relation of physical process to divine name;Plouton is here connected toplêthos (abundance).[174]
In theStoic system, Pluto represented the lower region of theair, where according toSeneca (1st century AD) the soul underwent a kind ofpurgatory before ascending to the ether.[175] Seneca's contemporary Cornutus made use of the traditional etymology of Pluto's name for Stoic theology. The Stoics believed that the form of a word contained the original truth of its meaning, which over time could become corrupted or obscured.[176]Plouton derived fromploutein, "to be wealthy," Cornutus said, because "all things are corruptible and therefore are 'ultimately consigned to him as his property.'"[177]
Within thePythagorean andNeoplatonic traditions, Pluto was allegorized as the region where souls are purified, located between the Moon (as represented by Persephone) and the Sun.[178] Neoplatonists sometimes interpreted the Eleusinian Mysteries as afabula of celestial phenomena:
Authors tell the fable that Ceres was Proserpina's mother, and that Proserpina while playing one day was kidnapped by Pluto. Her mother searched for her with lighted torches; and it was decreed by Jupiter that the mother should have her daughter for fifteen days in the month, but Pluto for the rest, the other fifteen. This is nothing but that the name Ceres is used to mean the earth, called Ceres on analogy withcrees ('you may create'), for all things are created from her. By Proserpina is meant the moon, and her name is on analogy withprope serpens ('creeping near'), for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets. She is called earth's daughter, becauseher substance has more of earth in it than of the otherelements. By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon.[179]
Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, ceiling mural (ca. 1597) byCaravaggio (see description underFine art below)
A dedicatory inscription fromSmyrna describes a 1st–2nd century sanctuary to "God Himself" as the most exalted of a group of six deities, including clothed statues ofPlouton Helios andKoure Selene, "Pluto the Sun" and "Kore the Moon."[180] The status of Pluto and Kore as a divine couple is marked by what the text describes as a "linen embroidered bridal curtain."[181] The two are placed as bride and groom within an enclosed temple, separately from the other deities cultivated at the sanctuary.
Plouton Helios is mentioned in other literary sources in connection withKoure Selene andHelios Apollon; the sun on its nighttime course was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the underworld on its return to the east.Apuleius describes a rite in which the sun appears at midnight to the initiate at the gates of Proserpina; it has been suggested that this midnight sun could bePlouton Helios.[182]
The Smyrna inscription also records the presence ofHelios Apollon at the sanctuary. As two forms of Helios, Apollo and Pluto pose a dichotomy:
In theHellenistic era, the title or epithetPlutonius is sometimes affixed to the names of other deities. In theHermetic Corpus,[185] Jupiter Plutonius "rules over earth and sea, and it is he who nourishes mortal things that have soul and bear fruit."[186]
InPtolemaic Alexandria, at the site of a dream oracle,Serapis was identified with Aion Plutonius.[187]Gilles Quispel conjectured that this figure results from the integration of the Orphic Phanes intoMithraic religion at Alexandria, and that he "assures the eternity of the city," where the birth ofAion was celebrated at the sanctuary of Kore on 6 January.[188] In Latin,Plutonius can be anadjective that simply means "of or pertaining to Pluto."[189]
The NeoplatonistProclus (5th century AD) considered Pluto the thirddemiurge, asublunar demiurge who was also identified variously with Poseidon orHephaestus. This idea is present inRenaissance Neoplatonism, as for instance in the cosmology ofMarsilio Ficino (1433–99),[190] who translated Orphic texts into Latin for his own use.[191] Ficino saw the sublunar demiurge as "adaemonic 'many-headed'sophist, amagus, an enchanter, a fashioner of images and reflections, ashape-changer of himself and of others, a poet in a wayof being and of not-being, a royal Pluto." This demiurgic figure identified with Pluto is also "'a purifier of souls' who presides over the magic of love and generation and who uses a fantastic counter-art to mock, but also ... to supplement, the divineicastic or truly imitative art of thesublime translunar Demiurge."[192]
Christian writers oflate antiquity sought to discredit the competing gods of Roman and Hellenistic religions, often adopting the euhemerizing approach in regarding them not as divinities, but as people glorified through stories and cultic practices and thus not true deities worthy of worship. The infernal gods, however, retained their potency, becoming identified with theDevil and treated asdemonic forces byChristian apologists.[193]
One source of Christian revulsion toward the chthonic gods was the arena. Attendants in divine costume, among them a "Pluto" who escorted corpses out, were part of the ceremonies of thegladiatorial games.[194]Tertullian calls the mallet-wielding figure usually identified as theEtruscanCharun the "brother of Jove,"[195] that is, Hades/Pluto/Dis, an indication that the distinctions among these denizens of the underworld were becoming blurred in a Christian context.[196]Prudentius, in his poetic polemic against the religious traditionalistSymmachus, describes the arena as a place where savage vows were fulfilled on an altar to Pluto(solvit adaram / Plutonis feravota), where fallen gladiators werehuman sacrifices to Dis andCharon received their souls ashis payment, to the delight of the underworld Jove(Iovis infernalis).[197]
Medieval mythographies, written in Latin, continue the conflation of Greek and Roman deities begun by the ancient Romans themselves. Perhaps because the name Pluto was used in both traditions, it appears widely in these Latin sources for the classical ruler of the underworld, who is also seen as the double, ally, or adjunct to the figure inChristian mythology known variously as theDevil,Satan, orLucifer. The classical underworld deities became casually interchangeable with Satan as an embodiment ofHell.[198] For instance, in the 9th century,Abbo Cernuus, the only witness whose account of theSiege of Paris survives, called the invadingVikings the "spawn of Pluto."[199]
In theLittle Book on Images of the Gods, Pluto is described as
an intimidating personage sitting on a throne of sulphur, holding the scepter of his realm in his right hand, and with his left strangling a soul. Under his feet three-headed Cerberus held a position, and beside him he had threeHarpies. From his golden throne of sulphur flowed four rivers, which were called, as is known,Lethe,Cocytus,Phlegethon andAcheron, tributaries of theStygian swamp.[200]
This work derives from that of theThird Vatican Mythographer, possibly one Albricus or Alberic, who presents often extensive allegories and devotes his longest chapter, including anexcursus on the nature of the soul, to Pluto.[201]
InDante'sDivine Comedy (written 1308–1321), Pluto presides over thefourth circle of Hell, to which the greedy are condemned.[202] The Italian form of the name isPluto, taken by somecommentators[203] to refer specifically to Plutus as the god of wealth who would preside over the torment of those who hoarded or squandered it in life.[204] Dante's Pluto is greeted as "the great enemy"[205] and utters the famously impenetrable linePapé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe. Much of this Canto is devoted to the power ofFortuna to give and take away. Entrance into the fourth circle has marked a downward turn in the poet's journey, and the next landmark after he and his guide cross from the circle is theStygian swamp, through which they pass on their way to thecity of Dis (ItalianDite). Dante's clear distinction between Pluto and Dis suggests that he had Plutus in mind in naming the former. The city of Dis is the "citadel of Lower Hell" where the walls are garrisoned byfallen angels andFuries.[206] Pluto is treated likewise as a purely Satanic figure by the 16th-century Italian poetTasso throughout his epicJerusalem Delivered,[207] in which "great Dis, great Pluto" is invoked in the company of "all ye devils that lie in deepest hell."[208]
Influenced by Ovid and Claudian,Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400)[209] developed the myth of Pluto andProserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) inEnglish literature. Like earlier medieval writers, Chaucer identifies Pluto's realm withHell as a place of condemnation and torment,[210] and describes it as "derk and lowe" ("dark and low").[211] But Pluto's major appearance in the works of Chaucer comes as a character in "The Merchant's Tale," where Pluto is identified as the "Kyng of Fayerye" (Fairy King).[212] As in the anonymousromanceSir Orfeo (ca. 1300), Pluto and Proserpina rule over a fantastical world that melds classical myth andfairyland.[213] Chaucer has the couple engage in a comicbattle of the sexes that undermines theChristian imagery in the tale, which is Chaucer's most sexually explicit.[214] The Scottish poetWilliam Dunbarca. 1503 also described Pluto as a folkloric supernatural being, "the elrichincubus / in cloke of grene" ("theeldritch incubus in cloak of green"), who appears among thecourtiers ofCupid.[215]
The namePluto for the classical ruler of the underworld was further established in English literature byArthur Golding, whose translation of Ovid'sMetamorphoses (1565) was of great influence onWilliam Shakespeare,[216]Christopher Marlowe,[217] andEdmund Spenser.[218][219] Golding translates Ovid'sDis as Pluto,[220] a practice that prevails among English translators, despiteJohn Milton's use of the LatinDis inParadise Lost.[221] The Christian perception of the classical underworld as Hell influenced Golding's translation practices; for instance, Ovid'stenebrosa sede tyrannus / exierat ("thetyrant[Dis] had gone out of his shadowy realm") becomes "the prince of fiends forsook his darksome hole".[222]
Pluto's court as a literary setting could bring together a motley assortment of characters. InHuon de Méry's 13th-century poem "The Tournament of theAntichrist", Pluto rules over a congregation of "classical gods and demigods, biblical devils, and evil Christians."[223] In the 15th-centurydream allegoryThe Assembly of Gods, the deities and personifications are "apparelled as medieval nobility"[224] basking in the "magnyfycence" of their "lord Pluto," who is clad in a "smoky net" and reeking of sulphur.[225]
Throughout theRenaissance, images and ideas fromclassical antiquity enteredpopular culture through thenew medium of print and throughpageants and other public performances at festivals. TheFête-Dieu atAix-en-Provence in 1462 featured characters costumed as a number of classical deities, including Pluto,[226] and Pluto was the subject of one of seven pageants presented as part of the 1521Midsummer Eve festival inLondon.[227] During the 15th century, no mythological theme was brought to the stage more often than Orpheus's descent, with the court of Pluto inspiring fantasticalstagecraft.[228]Leonardo da Vinci designed a set with a rotating mountain that opened up to reveal Pluto emerging from the underworld; the drawing survives and was the basis for a modern recreation.[229]
The tragic descent of the hero-musician Orpheus to the underworld to retrieve his bride, and his performance at the court of Pluto and Proserpina, offered compelling material forlibrettists and composers of opera (seeList of Orphean operas) andballet. Pluto also appears in works based on other classical myths of the underworld. As a singing role, Pluto is almost always written for abass voice, with the lowvocal range representing the depths and weight of the underworld, as inMonteverdi andRinuccini'sL'Orfeo (1607) andIl ballo delle ingrate (1608). In theirballo, a form of ballet with vocal numbers, Cupid invokes Pluto from the underworld to lay claim to "ungrateful" women who were immune to love. Pluto's part is considered particularly virtuosic,[230] and a reviewer at the première described the character, who appeared as if from a blazing Inferno, as "formidable and awesome in sight, with garments as given him by poets, but burdened with gold and jewels."[231]
Jean Raoux'sOrpheus and Eurydice (1718–20), with Pluto and Proserpina releasing the couple
Pluto has also been featured as a role in ballet. In Lully's "Ballet of Seven Planets'" interlude fromCavalli's operaErcole amante ("Hercules in Love"),Louis XIV himself danced as Pluto and other characters; it was a spectacular flop.[240] Pluto appeared inNoverre's lostLa descente d'Orphée aux Enfers (1760s).Gaétan Vestris danced the role of the god inFlorian Deller'sOrefeo ed Euridice (1763).[241] ThePersephone choreographed byRobert Joffrey (1952) was based onAndré Gide's line "king of winters, the infernal Pluto."[242]
Albrecht Dürer,Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516)Rembrandt'sAbduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631)
The abduction of Proserpina by Pluto was the scene from the myth most often depicted byartists, who usually follow Ovid's version. The influential emblem bookIconologia of Cesare Ripa (1593, second edition 1603) presents the allegorical figure of Rape with a shield on which the abduction is painted.[243]Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg, the first teacher ofRembrandt, echoed Ovid in showing Pluto as the target ofCupid's arrow whileVenus watches her plan carried out (location of painting unknown). Thetreatment of the scene byRubens is similar. Rembrandt incorporates Claudian's more passionatecharacterizations.[244] The performance of Orpheus in the court of Pluto and Proserpina was also a popular subject.
Major artists who produced works depicting Pluto include:
Dürer,Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516),etching. Dürer's first English biographer called this work "a wild, weird conception" that "produces a most uncomfortable, shuddering impression on the beholder."[245] The source or significance of theunicorn as the form of transport is unclear; Dürer's preparatory drawing showed a conventional horse. Pluto seems to be presented in a manner that recalls theleader of the Wild Hunt.[246]
Bernini,Pluto and Proserpina (1621–22), also known asThe Rape of Proserpina, sculpture with a Cerberus looking in three different directions.[248]
Rembrandt,Abduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631), painting influenced by Rubens (via theengraving of his studentPieter Soutman).[249] Rembrandt's leonine Pluto draws on Claudian's description of the god as like a ravening lion.[250]
After the Renaissance, literary interest in the abduction myth waned until the revival of classical myth among theRomantics. The work of mythographers such asJ.G. Frazer andJane Ellen Harrison helped inspire the recasting of myths in modern terms byVictorian andModernist writers. InTess of the d'Urbervilles (1891),Thomas Hardy portrays Alec d'Urberville as "a grotesque parody of Pluto/Dis" exemplifying the late-Victorian culture ofmale domination, in which women were consigned to "an endless breaking ... on the wheel of biological reproduction."[251] A similar figure is found inThe Lost Girl (1920) byD.H. Lawrence, where the character Ciccio[252] acts as Pluto to Alvina's Persephone, "the deathly-lost bride ... paradoxically obliterated and vitalised at the same time by contact with Pluto/Dis" in "a prelude to the grand design of rebirth." The darkness of Pluto is both a source of regeneration, and of "merciless annihilation."[253] Lawrence takes up the theme elsewhere in his work; inThe First Lady Chatterley (1926, an early version ofLady Chatterley's Lover), Connie Chatterley sees herself as a Persephone and declares "she'd rather be married to Pluto than Plato," casting her earthy gamekeeper lover as the former and her philosophy-spouting husband as the latter.[254]
^Odyssey 5.125–128:And so it was when Demeter of the lovely hair, yielding / to her desire, lay down with Iasion and loved him / in a thrice-turned field (translation ofRichmond Lattimore).
^Hesiod,Theogony 969–74;Apostolos N. Athanassakis,Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983, 2004), p. 56.
^Emily Vermeule,Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry (University of California Press, 1979), pp. 37, 219;Hendrik Wagenvoort, "The Origin of theLudi Saeculares," inStudies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), p. 198.
^Hansen,Classical Mythology, pp. 162 and 182, citingHomer,Iliad 9.158–159. Euphemism is a characteristic way of speaking of divine figures associated with the dead and the underworld; Joseph William Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus,"Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 19 (1908), p. 66, considers euphemism a form ofpropitiation.
^Plato,Cratylus 403a; Glenn R. Morrow,Plato's Cretan City: A Historical Interpretation of the Laws (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 452–453.
^Fernando Navarro Antolin,Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 145–146.
^Charlotte R. Long,The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), p. 179; Phyllis Pray Bober, "Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity,"American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951), p. 28, examples in Greek and Roman art in note 98; Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 65.
^Tsagalis,Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 101–102; Morrow,Plato's Cretan City, pp. 452–453; John J. Hermann, Jr., "Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter? A Graeco-Roman Sculpture from an Egyptian Workshop in Boston" inJahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 114 (1999), p. 88.
^Noel Robertson,Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities: The Sacred Laws of Selinus and Cyrene (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 102, citing passages from theOrphic Hymns, throughout whichPlouton is the ruler of the underworld, and Hades is the name of the place itself.
^Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 74, asserts that "Zeus Catachthonius seems certainly to be Pluto." Other deities to whom the titleKatachthonios was affixed include Demeter, Persephone, and the Furies; Eugene Lane, "The Epithets ofMen,"Corpus monumentorum religionis dei Menis: Interpretation and Testimonia (Brill, 1976), vol. 3, p. 77, citing the entry onKatachthonioi in Roscher,Lexikon II, i, col. 998ff.
^Zeus Chthonius and Pluto are seen as having "the same significance" in theOrphic Hymns and in theDionysiaca of Nonnus (6.156ff.), by Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 74, note 7. Overlapping functions are also suggested whenHesiod advises farmers to pray to "Zeus Chthonius and to holy Demeter that they may cause the holy corn of Demeter to teem in full perfection." This form of Zeus receives the blackvictims typically offered to underworld deities.
^Plutarch,De Iside27 (361e): "In fact, men assert that Pluto is none other than Serapis and that Persephone isIsis, even asArchemachus of Euboea has said, and alsoHeracleides Ponticus who holds the oracle inCanopus to be an oracle of Pluto" (Loeb Classical Library translation of 1936,LacusCurtius edition). Also spelled Sarapis. See Jaime Alvar,Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, translated by Richard Gordon (Brill, 2008), pp. 53online and 58; Hermann, "Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter?", p. 84.
^Pluto Latine est Dis pater, alii Orcum vocant ("In Latin, Pluto is Dis Pater; others call him Orcus"):Ennius,Euhemerus frg. 7 in the edition of Vahlen =Var. 78 = E.H. Warmington,Remains of Old Latin (Heinemann, 1940), vol. 1, p. 421. TheAugustan poetHorace retains the Greekaccusative form of the noun (Plutona instead of LatinPlutonem) atCarmen 2.14.7, as noted by John Conington,P. Vergili Maronis Opera (London, 1883), vol. 3, p. 36.
^H.D. Jocelyn,The Tragedies of Ennius (Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 331, with reference toKurt Latte,Römische Religionsgeschichte (C.H. Beck, 1967, 1992), p. 246ff.
^Cicero,De natura deorum 2.66, translation of John MacDonald Ross (Penguin Books, 1972):Terrena autem vis omnis atque natura Diti patri dedicata est, qui dives, ut apud Graecos Πλούτων quia et recidunt omnia in terras et oriuntur e terris.
^Lucian,On Mourning (seeGreek text); Peter Bolt,Jesus' Defeat of Death: Persuading Mark's Early Readers (Cambridge University Press, 2003) discusses this passage (pp. 126–127) and Greco-Roman concepts of the underworld as a context forChristian eschatologypassim.
^Clare Robertsonet al.,Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 35.
^Diane Rayor,The Homeric Hymns (University of California Press, 2004), pp. 107–109.
^Christos Tsagalis,Inscribing Sorrow: Fourth-century Attic Funerary Epigrams (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008), pp. 101–102.
^Sources used to prepare this article uniformly refer to theBibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus as theLibrary of Apollodorus. Recent scholarship prefers to view the authorship of this work as anonymous; seeBibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus).
^Hyginus,Fabulae 146. Thelate-antique mythographerFulgentius also names the ruler of the underworld as Pluto, a practice continued by medieval mythographers.
^Andrew D. Radford,The Lost Girls: Demeter-Persephone and the Literary Imagination, 1850–1930 (Editions Rodopi, 2007), p. 24. For an extensive comparison of Ovid's two treatments of the myth, with reference to versions such as theHomeric Hymn to Demeter, see Stephen Hinds,The Metamorphosis of Persephone: Ovid and the Self-Conscious Muse (Cambridge University Press, 1987),limited preview online.
^In Book 6 of theAeneid (thecatabasis ofAeneas),Vergil also names the ruler of the underworld more often asDis thanPluto.
^See also, for instance, J.J.L. Smolenaars,Statius. Thebaid VII: A Commentary (Brill, 1994),passim, or John G. Fitch,Seneca's 'Hercules Furens'(Cornell University Press, 1987),passim, where the ruler of the underworld is referred to as "Pluto" in the English commentary, but as "Dis" or with other epithets in the Latin text.
^Natale Conti observes (Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, p. 174) that before the abduction, Pluto was the only childless bachelor among the gods(solus omnium deorum coelibem et filiis carentem vitam traduceret). ThenymphMinthē was the concubine (pallakis,Strabo 8.3.14) of the ruler of the underworld under the name of Hades, but no ancient source records Pluto in this role; Conti, however, describes Minthē(Menthe) as thepellex of Pluto.
^Orphic fragments 197 and 360 (edition of Kern) andOrphic Hymn 70, as cited byHelene P. Foley,Hymn to Demeter (Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 110, note 97.
^Robertson,Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities, p. 102. Robertson holds that in the Orphic tradition, the Eumenides are distinguished from the Furies (GreekErinyes). Vergilconflates the Eumenides and theFuries, and elsewhere says that Night(Nox) is their mother.Proclus, in hiscommentary on theCratylus ofPlato, provides passages from the OrphicRhapsodies that give two different genealogies of the Eumenides, one making them the offspring of Persephone and Pluto (or Hades) and the other reporting a prophecy that they were to be born to Persephone andApollo (Robertson,Religion and Reconciliation, p. 101).
^When she had spoken these words, fearsome, she sought the earth: and summoned Allecto, the grief-bringer, from the house of the Fatal Furies, from the infernal shadows: in whose mind are sad wars, angers and deceits, and guilty crimes. A monster, hated by her own father Pluto, hateful to her Tartarean sisters: she assumes so many forms, her features are so savage, she sports so many black vipers. Juno roused her with these words, saying: 'Grant me a favour of my own, virgin daughter of Night, this service, so that my honour and glory are not weakened, and give way, and the people of Aeneas cannot woo Latinus with intermarriage, or fill the bounds of Italy(Aeneid 7.323 – Verg. A. 7.334 ).http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:phi,0690,003:7:337
^Men speak of twin plagues, named the Dread Ones, whom Night bore untimely, in one birth with Tartarean Megaera, wreathing them equally in snaky coils, and adding wings swift as the wind.)." ( Aeneid 12. 845 – 12. 848 ff )
^Justin Martyr,Apology2.5; see discussion of the context by David Dawson,Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), pp. 193–194.
^Hesychius, lexicon entry on Ἰσοδαίτης (Isodaitês), 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt.
^David Scott Wilson-Okamura,Virgil in the Renaissance (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 169, citing Boccaccio,Genealogia deorum gentilium 8.6; see also the Italian translation of 1644,p. 130. Boccaccio cites Servius as his source, adding thatTheodontius names the daughter of Pluto as Reverentia and says she was married toHonos ("Honor").Macaria, or "blessedness," was a daughter of Hades, according to theSuda.
^"Of griesly Pluto she the daughter was":Edmund Spenser,The Faerie Queene, I.iv.11.1, as noted by G.W. Kitchin,Book I of The Faery Queene (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, 9th ed.), p. 180. In the 15th-century allegoryThe Assembly of Gods (lines 601–602), the figure ofVice personified is the bastard son of Pluto.
^A.C. Hamilton,The Spenser Encyclopedia (University of Toronto Press, 1990, 1997), p. 351, noting that Hecate is called a "phosphor", bringer of light, byEuripides,Helen 569. The titlePhosphoros is a common one for Hecate; Sarah Iles Johnston,Restless Dead: Encounters between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece (University of California Press, 1999), p. 206.
^Douglas Brooks-Davies, entry on "Mysteries" inThe Spenser Encyclopedia, pp. 486–487.
^Claude Calame, "The Authority of Orpheus, Poet and Bard: Between Tradition and Written Practice," inAllusion, Authority, and Truth: Critical Perspectives on Greek Poetic and Rhetorical Praxis (De Gruyter, 2010), p. 16.
^As accurately reflected by the translation of Michael Simpson,Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus (University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), pp. 13–15. Apollodorus consistently names the ruler of the underworldPlouton throughout, including the myths of his birth, tripartite division of sovereignty over the world, and the abduction.
^Geoffrey Miles,Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology (Routledge, 1999), p. 54ff.
^Horace,Carmen 2.14.6–7,inlacrimabilem Plutona (Greek accusative instead of LatinPlutonem).
^A.S.P. Woodhouseet al.,A Variorum Commentary on the Poems of John Milton (Columbia University Press, 1972), p. 327.
^In the dialogueAmatorius (Ἐρωτικός)20,Plutarch says that the only god Hades listens to isEros; the 17th-century classicistDaniel Clasen, translating theMoralia into Latin, gives the god's name as Pluto, and in his mythographical workTheologia gentilis 2.4.6 includes this quality in his chapter on Pluto; seeThesaurus graecarum antiquitatum (Leiden, 1699), vol. 7, 104.
^Lucian,Dialogues of the Dead 23 (English translation from the 1820 edition ofWilliam Tooke; Jan Kott,The Eating of the Gods (Northwestern University Press, 1987), pp. 95–97. Lucian's dialogue has sometimes been referenced as a model for the premature loss of love between an active man carried suddenly into death and his young wife; see for instance Alfred Woltmann,Holbein and His Times (London, 1872), p. 280, andA.P. Russell,In a Club Corner: The Monologue of a Man Who Might Have Been Sociable (Houghton, Mifflin, 1890), pp. 78–79. The dialogue has also been seen as aburlesque ofdomesticity; Betrand A. Goldgar,Henry Fielding: Miscellanies (Wesleyan University Press, 1993), vol. 2, p. xxxviii.
^Tsagalis,Inscribing Sorrow, p. 102. The shift may have begun as early as the 6th century. The earliest evidence of the assimilation of Hades and Ploutos/Plouton is aphiale by theDouris painter, dating toca. 490 BC, according to Jan N. Bremmer, "W. Brede Kristensen and the Religions of Greece and Rome," inMan, Meaning, and Mystery: Hundred Years of History of Religions in Norway. The Heritage of W. Brede Kristensen (Brill, 2000), pp. 125–126. A point of varying emphasis is whether the idea of Plouton as a god of wealth was a later development, or an inherent part of his nature, owing to the underground storage of grain in thepithoi that were also used for burial. For a summary of these issues, see Cora Angier Sowa,Traditional Themes and the Homeric Hymns (Bolchazy-Carducci, 1984, 2005), p. 356, note 105.
^Morrow,Plato's Cretan City, p. 452; Long,The Twelve Gods, p. 154.
^Long,The Twelve Gods, p. 179. Seelectisternium for the "strewing of couches" in ancient Rome. Two inscriptions fromAttica record the names of individuals who participated in the ritual at different times:IGII21933 and 1934, as cited by Robert Develin,Athenian Officials, 684–321 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2003), p. 417.
^Nicholas F. Jones,The Associations of Classical Athens: The Response to Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 125, citingIG II21363, datingca. 330–270; Karl Kerényi,Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter (Princeton University Press, 1967), pp. 110–111.
^Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston,Ritual Texts and the Afterlife (Routledge, 2007), first page (not numbered).
^The recurring phrase "house of Hades" (῾Αΐδαο δόμος) can be read ambiguously as either the divine being or the place, or both. In the numbering of Graf and Johnston,Ritual Texts and the Afterlife, "house of Hades" appears in Tablet 1, line 2 (Hipponion, Calabria,Magna Graecia,ca. 400 BC), which refers again to Hades as a place ("what you are seeking in the darkness of murky Hades", line 9), with the king of the underworld (ὑποχθονίοι βασιλεϊ,hypochthonioi basilei) alluded to in line 13; Tablet 2, line 1 (Petelia, present-dayStrongoli, Magna Graecia, 4th century BC); and Tablet 25 (Pharsalos,Thessaly, 350–300 BC).Hades is also discernible on the "carelessly inscribed" Tablet 38 from a Hellenistic-era grave inHagios Athanasios, nearThessalonike.
^Kevin Clinton,Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), p. 111, observing that this presentation in art contrasts with the earliest literary sources.
^Giovanni Casadio and Patricia A. Johnston, "Introduction",Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia (University of Texas Press, 2009), p. 21.
^Tablets 15 (Eleuthera 6, 2nd/1st century BC) and 17 (Rethymnon 1, from the earlyRoman Empire, 25–40 AD), fromCrete, in the numbering of Graf and Johnston.
^Sometimes read as "father," as in the translation given by Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets (Brill, 2008), p. 84.
^Παρὰ Φερσεφόνει Πλούτωνί τε: Tsagalis,Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 100–101. Tsagalis discusses this inscription in light of theHomeric Hymn to Demeter and theThesmophoria.
^The entry in Hesychius reads: Εὐβουλεύς (sch. Nic. Al. 14) · ὁ Πλούτων. παρὰ δὲ τοῖς πολλοῖς ὁ Ζεὺς ἐν Κυρήνη (Eubouleus: ho Ploutôn. para de toîs polloîs ho Zeus enKyrene), 643 (Schmidt).
^Kevin Clinton, "The Mysteries of Demeter and Kore," inA Companion to Greek Religion (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 347–353.
^Euboulos may be a cult title here and not the name of the god Eubuleus; elsewhere it is an epithet of the sea godNereus, perfect in his knowledge of truth and justice, and in his own Orphic hymn the guardian of the "roots" of the sea. SeePindar,Pythian Ode 3.93; Hesiod,Theogony 233–236;Orphic Hymn 23; Athanassakis,Hesiod, p. 52; Pierre Bonnechere, "Trophonius of Lebadea: Mystery Aspects of an Oracular Cult in Boeotia," inGreek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Ancient Greek Secret Cults (Routledge, 2003, 2005), p. 188.
^The translations of theOrphic Hymn to Pluto are from Apostolos N. Athanassakis,The Orphic Hymns (Scholars Press, 1977).
^Act of Thomas 50, as cited and discussed by Susan E. Myers,Spirit Epicleses in the Acts of Thomas (Mohr Siebeck, 2010), p. 174.
^Hans Dieter Betz,The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1992),passim; John G. Gager,Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 12 (examples invoking Pluto pp. 99, 135, 143–144, 207–209) andpassim on Hades.
^Bolt,Jesus' Defeat of Death, p. 152; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", inA Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 264.
^Daniel Ogden,Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 212, with English translation of the curse.
^Gager,Curse Tablets, p. 131, with translations of both tablets, and note 35.
^Derek Collins,Magic in the Ancient Greek World (Blackwell, 2008), p. 73.
^Esther Eidinow, "Why the Athenians Began to Curse," inDebating the Athenian Cultural Revolution: Art, Literature, Philosophy and Politics 430–380 BC (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 50; Ogden,Magic, Withcraft, and Ghosts, p. 212.
^Bernard Dietrich, "The Religious Prehistory of Demeter's Eleusinian Mysteries," inLa soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' Impero Romano (Brill, 1982), p. 454.
^Robertson,Religion and Reconciliation, p. 163online, citingIG 13356.155 andIG 221672.140; see alsoThe Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Topography and Architecture (American School of Classical Studies, 1997), p. 76, note 31.
^Strabo14.1.44; "Summaries of Periodicals,"American Journal of Archaeology 7 (1891), p. 209; Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 93.
^Frederick E. Brenk, "Jerusalem-Hierapolis. The Revolt under Antiochos IV Epiphanes in the Light of Evidence for Hierapolis of Phrygia, Babylon, and Other Cities," inRelighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy, and in the New Testament Background (Franz Steiner, 1998), pp. 382–384, citingPhotius,Life of Isidoros 131 on the dream.
^Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Reconstructing Change: Ideology and the Eleusinian Mysteries," inInventing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Periodization and the Ancient World (Routledge, 1997), p. 137;Georg Luck,Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 505.
^Strabo C244–6, as cited by Daniel Ogden,Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 190 –191.
^Kevin Clinton,Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), pp. 105. As Clinton notes (p. 107), theLexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae does not distinguish between Hades and Plouton, and combines evidence for either in a single entry. The only vase to label the EleusinianTheos with an inscription is a red-figured footeddinos in the collections of theJ. Paul Getty Museum, attributed to theSyleus Painter. The main scene is the departure ofTriptolemos, with Demeter on the left and Persephone asPherephata ([Φε]ρ[ε]φάτα) on the right.Theos wears ahimation over a spangled tunic with decorated hem (Clinton, p. 106).
^Catherine M. Keesling, "Endoios's Painting from the Themistoklean Wall: A Reconstruction,"Hesperia 68.4 (1999), p. 544, note 160.
^Natale Conti,Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, pp. 173–174.
^Sophocles,Oedipus at Colonus 1051 ("Rites they to none betray, / Ere on his lips is laid / Secrecy's golden key / By their own acolytes, / PriestlyEumolpidae," in the 1912 translation of F. Storr), as cited byJane Ellen Harrison, introduction toMythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, a translation ofPausanias by Margaret de G. Verrall (London, 1890), pp. liv–lv. It is unclear whether a literal key is meant, or agoldenlamella (Totenpass).
^Robert Turcan,Les religions de l'Asie dans la vallée du Rhône (Brill, 1972), p. 26.
^Turcan,Les religions de l'Asie, pp. 23–26. Both Persephone (as Persephassa and "Kore out of Tartaros") and Anubis are key-holders throughout theGreek Magical Papyri.Jesus Christ, as the conqueror of death and Hades, holds keys in theBook of Revelation 1:18; see Walter A. Elwell and Philip W. Comfort,Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Tyndale, 2001), p. 561.
^For extensive notes on Aiakos, see Radcliffe Guest Edmonds,Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the 'Orphic' Gold Tablets (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 148, note 116. As a possessor of keys, he appears in Apollodorus 3.12.6,PGM IV.1264, and inscriptions.
^Ancient sources onphasganion,xiphion andgladiolus, generally called "corn-flag" byhistorical botanists, includeTheophrastus,Historia Plantarum 7.12.3;Dioscorides,De Materia MedicaE 2.101;Pliny,Natural History 21.107–115;Pseudo-Apuleius,Herbarius 79, as cited by Andrew Dalby,Food in the Ancient World from A to Z (Routledge, 2003), p. 105, characterizing Pliny's entry on the plant as "confused." The correspondence of ancient plant names to modern species is always uncertain. Both the Greekxiphion and the Latin wordgladiolus ("little sword") come from a word meaning "sword."
^Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle (Paris, 1819), pp. 315–316; Julius Billerbeck,Flora classica (Leipzig, 1824), p. 13; "L'origine dei maccheroni,"Archivo per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari 17 (1898), vol. 36, p. 428.
^Francis Adams,The Seven Books ofPaulus Aegineta (London, 1847), p. 270; Dalby,Food in the Ancient World, p. 105;Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315.
^John M. Riddle,Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 42;Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315.
^P.G. Maxwell-Stuart,Studies in Greek Colour Terminology: ΓΛΑΥΚΟΣ (Brill, 1981), vol. 1, pp. 40, 42, citing Cornutus,Theologiae Graecae Compendium 9, 20, 35. The word γλαυκότης(glaukotēs), however, is atextual crux in the passage pertaining to Pluto.
^Lucifuga inumbratione pallescens andTartareae noctis obscuritate furvescens,Martianus Capella,De nuptiis 1.79–80; Danuta Shanzer,A Philosophical and Literary Commentary on Martianus Capella's De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii Book 1 (University of California Press, 1986), p. 171.
^Ovid,Fasti 4.446, as cited John G. Fitch,Seneca'sHercules furens: A Critical Text with Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 166, note to Seneca's identical description of the horses of the Sun (line 132). Ovid describes the horses as black(ater) in his version of the abduction myth in theMetamorphoses, 5.310. On the colorcaeruleus, see also Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Caerimonia," inStudies, pp. 98–101.
^Natale Conti,Mythologiae 2.9. Conti's sources on this point are unclear, and he thoroughly conflates traditions pertaining to the various classical rulers of the underworld.
^Homeric Hymn to Demeter, lines 7–9, as cited by Radford,Lost Girls, p. 145; Clayton Zimmerman,The Pastoral Narcissus: A Study of the First Idyll of Theocritus (Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 2.
^Sophocles,Oedipus at Colonus 681, andscholion, on Demeter and Persephone (the two "Great Goddesses");Euphorion, fragment 94, on the Eumenides; Zimmerman,The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Jan Coenradd Kamerbeek,The Plays of Sophocles, Commentaries: The Oedipus Colonus (Brill, 1984), vol. 7, p. 106, noting that garlands of flowers were expressly forbidden at theThesmophoria; James C. Hogan,A Commentary on the Plays of Sophocles (Southern Illinois University Press, 1991), p. 99.
^"Death and Greek Myths," inGreek and Egyptian Mythologies, edited by Yves Bonnefoy (University of Chicago Press, 1991, 1992), p. 110.
^Zimmerman,The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Carlin A. Barton,The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 92. Thephallus as a magic charm was the remedy forinvidia or the evil eye, a self-induced form of which was the ruin ofthe mythological figure Narcissus.
^On the difficulty of identifying precisely which flower the ancients meant by "narcissus," seeR.C. Jebb,Sophocles: The Plays and Fragments (Cambridge University Press, 1900, 3rd edition), p. 115.
^Ovid,Metamorphoses 3.505; Zimmerman,The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 48. The Styx here is a pool.
^Theophrastus,Historia plantarum 7.13–14;Nicander,Theriaca 846;Rabelais,Gargantua and Pantagruel 4.24; Adams,The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta, pp. 22–23; Richard Hunter,Theocritus: A Selection (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 277, noting that "the association of lush vegetation ... with female 'otherness' and sexuality has a long history."
^Riddle,Contraception and Abortion, pp. 31, 82, 180 (note 5).
^Samuel Beckett,"Jusque dans la caverne ciel et sol", the last of twelve poems in the cyclePoèmes 38–39 (1946); C.J. Ackerley and S.E. Gontarski,The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett (Grove Press, 2004), pp. 293, 443, 599.
^Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 25.
^Ovid,Metamorphoses 10.106ff.; Servius, note to Vergil'sGeorgics 1.20.
^Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–28.
^The nymphMinthē, a rival for the attentions ofHades (not named as Pluto), was transformed by Persephone into the mint plant, a major ingredient in the ritual drink of the mysteries (Strabo 8.3.14).
^Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 93 and 124–125, citingHarpocration.
^Arthur Calvert,P. Vergili Maronis. Aeneidos Liber V (Cambridge University Press, 1879), p. 48. This was a particular custom of theRhodians; the heroinePolyxo awarded white poplar wreaths to child athletes at the games she presented in honor of her husband; Pierre Grimal,The Dictionary of Classical Mythology (Blackwell, 1986, 1996), p. 385.
^Arthur Bernard Cook,Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), pp. 420–422; Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–26; W.K.C. Guthrie,Orpheus and Greek Religion (Princeton University Press, 1952, 1993), p. 182.
^Hansen,Classical Mythology, p. 182. Apparent references to the "helmet of Pluto" in other authors, such asIrenaeus (Against Heresies), are misleading; "Pluto" is substituted by the English translator for "Hades."
^A.L. Millin, "Mythologie," inMagasin Encyclopédique (Paris, 1808), p. 283; G.T. Villenave,Les métamorphoses d'Ovide (Paris, 1806), p. 307;Arthur Bernard Cook,Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Oxford University Press, 1924), vol. 2, p. 798 ff.; John G. Fitch,Seneca'sHercules Furens: A Critical Text With Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p.
^Friedrich Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius'Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination,"Vigiliae Christianae 19.4 (1965), pp. 238, 240–248et passim.
^Richard Stemp,The Secret Language of the Renaissance: Decoding the Hidden Symbolism of Italian Art (Duncan Baird, 2006), p. 114; Clare Robertson et al.,Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 78.
^Robertson et al.,Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections, pp. 78–79.
^abCreighton Gilbert,Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals (Penn State University Press, 1995), pp. 124–125.
^Identified as Pluto by Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal,Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 275.
^Identified as Hades by Hansen,Classical Mythology, p. 181.
^A.M. Bowie,Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy (Cambridge University Press, 1993, 1996), p. 229.
^As summarized byBenjamin Bickley Rogers,The Comedies of Aristophanes (London, 1902), pp. xvii and 214 (note to line 1414).
^Translation by Benjamin Jowett,The Dialogues of Plato (London, 1873), vol. 1.
^Plato,Laws 828d, translation from Long,The Twelve Gods, p. 69.
^Walter Burkert,Greek Religion (Harvard University Press, 1985, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 231, 336. See alsoHomo Necans (University of California Press, 1983, originally published 1972 in German), p. 143.
^Hesychius, entry on Ἰσοδαίτης, 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt, as translated and discussed by Richard Seaford,Money and the Early Greek Mind: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 51. Hesychius notes that Isodaites may alternatively refer to a son of Pluto as well as Pluto himself.
^H.S. Versnel,Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 119, especially note 93.
^Plato,Laws 828 B-D; Morrow,Plato's Cretan City p. 452; Long,The Twelve Gods, p. 179.
^Morrow,Plato's Cretan City, p. 453; Long,The Twelve Gods, p. 179.
^Lactantius,Divine Institutes 1.14; Brian P. Copenhaver,Polydore Vergil: On Discovery (Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 564.
^This parenthetical remark is part of the original text. Severalmanuscripts of Lactantius readDiespiter, which is usually a title of Jupiter, butDis pater is regarded as the more likely reading. See Katherine Nell MacFarlane, "Isidore of Seville on the Pagan Gods (Origines VIII. 11),"Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 70 (1980), p. 20, citingMigne,Patrologia Latina vol. VI, col. 190. The relation of the titleDis Pater toDiespiter in Latin is debated.
^"Titan" usually refers to a class or race of deities, but sometimes meansHelios or other divine personifications of the Sun.
^Cicero,De natura deorum 3.58: "Likewise, there are multiple Dianas. The first is said to have been born as a wingedCupid, with Jove andProserpina [as parents]. The second, whom we regard as the daughter of the third Jove andLatona, is better known. A tradition holds that Upis is the father and Glauca the mother of the third [Diana]"(Dianae item plures: prima Iovis et Proserpinae, quae pinnatum Cupidinem genuisse dicitur; secunda notior, quam Iove tertio et Latona natam accepimus; tertiae pater Upis traditur, Glauce mater: eam saepe Graeci Upim paterno nomine appellant); Copenhaver,Polydore Vergil: On Discovery, p. 564.
^Boccaccio's Expositions on Dante's Comedy, translated by Michael Papio (University of Toronto Press, 2009), pp. 332–333, 355.
^Rieuwerd Buitenwerf,Book III of the Sibylline Oracles and Its Social Setting (Brill, 2003), p. 157.
^Gábor Betegh,The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretations (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 151, has noted that "one cannot establish a linear descent between the different versions"; though efforts to do so have been made, "we cannot find a singlemytheme which would occur invariably in all the accounts and could thus create the core of all Orphic theogonies."
^J. van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony in the Pseudo-Clementines," inStudies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions, Presented toGilles Quispel on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday (Brill, 1981), p. 13.
^Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," pp. 16–17.
^Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," pp. 17–18. Betegh,The Derveni Papyrus, p. 151, summarizes this version as follows: "The story starts with Chaos; then comes the egg; the bottom part of the egg submerges and becomes Pluton, and Kronos – not a separate god but identified withChronos – swallows this heavy matter. The middle part, covering the first sediment, becomes Poseidon. The upper part of the egg, being purer and lighter, fiery in nature, goes upward and is called Zeus, and so forth."
^Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," p. 23; Betegh,The Derveni Papyrus, p. 150.
^Arthur Bernard Cook,Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), p. 746.
^Cornutus 5; Varro,De lingua latina 5.66 (on Dis); Seneca,Consolatio ad Marciam 25; all as cited by Joseph B. Mayor,De natura deorum libri tres (Cambridge University Press, 1883), vol. 2, p. 175, note to 2.26.66.
^R.M. van den Berg,Proclus' Commentary on the Cratylus in Context: Ancient Theories of Language and Naming (Brill, 2008), pp. 34–35.
^David Dawson,Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), p. 33, citingEpidrome 5.5.7–9.
^Plutarch,The Face of the Moon,LacusCurtius edition of theLoeb Classical Library translationonline, as discussed by Leonard L. Thompson, "ISmyrna 753: Gods and the One God," inReading Religions in the Ancient World: Essays Presented to Robert McQueen Grant on His 90th Birthday (Brill, 2007), p. 113, with reference also toIamblichus. See also Van den Berg,Proclus' Commentary, p. 49, with reference to Plutarch,On theE at Delphi.
^This interpretation is attributed to the Greek NeoplatonistNumenius (2nd century AD), by the FrenchscholasticWilliam of Conches, as cited and translated byPeter Dronke,Fabula: Explorations into the Uses of Myth in Medieval Platonism (Brill, 1985), p. 54.
^Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," p. 101ff. The other deities areHelios Apollon, who is paired withArtemis (p. 106); Zeus, who is subordinated to "God Himself"; andMēn, an Anatolian moon deity sometimes identified withAttis, who had a table before him for ceremonial dining (pp. 106, 109).
^Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 110–111, 114, with reference to the teachings ofAmmonius as recorded byPlutarch,The E at Delphi. The relevant passage (21) is: "This appears from the names, in themselves opposite and contradictory. He is called Apollo, another is called Pluto; he is Delius (apparent), the other Aidoneus (invisible); he is Phoebus (bright), the other Skotios (full of darkness); by his side are theMuses, andMemory, with the other are Oblivion and Silence; he is Theorius and Phanæus, the other is 'King of dim Night and ineffectual Sleep'." See also Frederick E. Brenk, "Plutarch's Middle Platonic God,"Gott und die Götter bei Plutarch (Walter de Gruyter, 2005), pp. 37–43, on Plutarch's etymological plays that produce these antitheses.
^Thompson, "ISmyrna 753,"passim, conclusion presented on p. 119. Thompson bases his argument on the particular collocation of deities at the sanctuary, and explicating theological details in the inscription through comparative material. See alsoNeoplatonism and Gnosticism.
^In the Latin dialogueAsclepius sometimes attributed toApuleius; see B.L. Hijmans, "Apuleius, Philosophus Platonicus,"Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.36.1 (1987), p. 441,et passim on the question of authorship.
^Baal-HammonTerrae vero et mari dominatur Iupiter Plutonius, et hic nutritor est animantium mortalium et fructiferarum (Asclepius 27), noted by G.F. Hildebrand,L. Apuleii Opera Omnia (Leipzig, 1842), p. 314, as equivalent to the Pluto described byValerius Flaccus,Argonautica 1.780, where, however, the god is called Dis and not Pluto. Translation from Brian P. Copenhaver,Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius (Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2002), p. 83; see also note to the passage p. 245. Influence fromRoman Africa, particularly the figure ofBaal-Hammon, may explain this particular syncretism;Jean-Pierre Mahé,Le fragment du "Discours parfait" dans la Bibliothèque de Nag Hammadi,Colloque International sur les textes de Nag hammadi (Québec, 22–25 août 1978) (Éditions Peeters, 1981), p. 310.
^Pseudo-Callisthenes, I.30–33, as cited by Jarl Fossum, "The Myth of the Eternal Rebirth: Critical Notes on G.W. Bowersock,Hellenism in Late Antiquity,"Vigiliae Christianae 53.3 (1999), p. 309, note 15. On the oracle and for the passage in which Aion Plutonius is named, see Irad Malkin,Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece (Brill, 1987), p. 107, especially note 87.
^"On this day and at this hour the Virgin gave birth to Aion":Gilles Quispel, "Hermann Hesse and Gnosis," inGnostica, Judaica, Catholica: Collected Essays (Brill, 2008), p. 258, noting that this date coincided withEpiphany and was a new year's celebration.
^As atHorace,Carmen 1.4.17, where thedomus ... Plutonia renders in Latin the Greek phrase "house of Hades."
^Entry on "Demiurge,"The Classical Tradition (Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 256.
^Entry on "Orpheus,"The Classical Tradition, p. 665. It was even said that the soul of Orpheus had been reborn into Ficino.
^Entry on "Demiurge," inThe Classical Tradition p. 256.
^Friedrich Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness inPrudentius'ContraSymmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination,"Vigiliae Christianae 19 (1965) 237–257; Margaret English Frazer, "Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ,"Metropolitan Museum Journal 9 (1974) 153–161.
^K.M. Coleman, "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments,"Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), p. 67.
^Tertullian,Ad nationes 1.10.Augustine regularly calls the Roman ruler of the underworldPluto inDe civitate Dei; see 2.15, where Pluto andNeptune are described as the brothers of Jove; 4.10, in noting their three-way division of sovereignty over the earth and with Proserpina as Pluto's spouse(coniunx); 4.11, in deriding the allegorizing of divinity in physical cosmogony; and 6.7, in denouncing the mysteries(sacra) as obscene.
^Daniel P. Harmon, "The Religious Significance of Games in the Roman Age," inThe Archaeology of the Olympics: The Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity (University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 242; Paul-Marie Duval, "Sucellus, the God with a Hammer," inAmerican, African, and Old European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 222.
^Prudentius,Contra Symmachum 1.379–398; Donald G. Kyle,Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1998, 2001), p. 59.
^Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness," pp. 237–257; Frazer, "Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ", pp. 153–161.
^Dic igitur, praepulchra polis, quod Danea munus / Libavit tibimet soboles Plutonis amica,Bella Parisiacae urbis 1.21, as noted by Nirmal Dass, "Temporary Otherness and Homiletic History in the Late Carolingian Age: A Reading of theBella Parisiacae urbis of Abbo of Stain-Germain-des-Prés," inDifference and Identity in Francia and Medieval France (Ashgate Publishing, 2010), p. 106. In his earlier edition, translation, and commentary of the work, Dass gives "Speak, most wondrous of cities, of the gift the Danes brought for you, / Those friends of Pluto", inViking Attacks on Paris: The 'Bella Parisiacae Urbis' of Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Peeters, 2007), pp. 28–29, butsoboles (classical Latinsuboles) means "progeny, offspring," modified byamica, "dear, beloved."
^De deorum imaginibus libellus, chapter 6, "De Plutone":homo terribilis in solio sulphureo sedens, sceptrum regni in manu tenens dextra: sinistra, animam constringes, cui tricipitem Cerberum sub pedibus collocabant, & iuxta se tres Harpyias habebat. De throno aurê eius sulphureo quatuor flumina manabunt, quae scilicet Lethum, Cocytû, Phlegethontem, & Acherontem appellabant, & Stygem paludem iuxta flumina assignabant.
^The questions of authorship involving theDe deorum imaginibus libellus and theLiber Ymaginum deorum ("Book of Images of the Gods") are vexed; Ronald E. Pepin,The Vatican Mythographers (Fordham University Press, 2008), pp. 7–9.
^For instance,Peter Bondanella in his note to the translation ofHenry Wadsworth Longfellow,The Inferno: Dante Alighieri (Barnes & Noble Classics, 2003), pp. 202–203. Dante may simply be preserving the longstanding conflation of GreekPlouton andPloutos; seeAllen Mandelbaum, note to his translation ofThe Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno (Bantam Dell, 2004, originally published 1980), p. 357. In modern Italian, the name of the classical ruler of the underworld isPlutone.
^The tormented souls wail"Perché tieni? e "Perché burli?" ("'Why do you hoard?' 'Why do you squander?'"):Inferno, Canto VII, line 30.
^Bondanella,The Inferno p. 206; Mandelbaum,Inferno p. 69.
^Ralph Nash,Jerusalem Delivered: An English Prose Version (Wayne State University Press, 1987), pp. xi and 475.
^Tasso,Jerusalem Delivered, Canto 13.7, translated by Edward Fairfax (1907).
^InThe House of Fame (lines 1510–1511), Chaucer explicitly acknowledges his debt to Claudian "That bar up al the fame of helle, / Of Pluto, and of Proserpyne," as noted by Radford,The Lost Girls, p. 25.
^InTroilus and Criseyde (lines 590–503), as noted by Rosalyn Rossignol,Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work (Facts on File, 2006), p. 540.
^William Dunbar,The Goldyn Targe (1503), lines 126–7, as cited by Ian Simpson Ross,William Dunbar (Brill, 1981), p. 252. Compare alsoArthur Golding's "elves of hell" to translate Ovid'sAvernales ... nymphas, "nymphs ofAvernus" (Metamorphoses 5.670, in his account of the abduction).
^Shakespeare's references to Pluto are conventional. Pluto is associated with Hell in the "Roman" playsCoriolanus (I.iv, "Pluto and Hell!" as an exclamation) andTitus Andronicus (IV.iii, "Pluto's region," and "Pluto sends you word, / If you will have Revenge from hell, you shall"), as also inHenry IV, Part 2 (II.iv): "I'll see her damn'd first; – to Pluto's damned lake, by this hand, to th' infernal deep, withErebus and tortures vile also." Pluto's gates are ametaphor for strength inTroilus and Cressida (V.ii), where Pluto is also sworn by (III.iv and V.ii). The performance of Orpheus is referenced inThe Rape of Lucrece (line 553): "And moody Pluto winks while Orpheus plays." Shakespeare also uses the name of Roman Dis, as in Perdita's catalogue of flowers inA Winter's Tale (IV.iii): "O Proserpina, / For the flowers now, that, frighted, thou lett'st fall / From Dis's waggon!"
^InDoctor Faustus (III.ii, 1616quarto),Mephistopheles invokes "Pluto's blue fire" in casting a spell of invisibility on the protagonist. In his translation ofLucan's epic, Marlowe usesPluto forDis (First Book of Lucan, lines 449, where "Pluto" refers to thedruidic godJulius Caesaridentified with Dis, and 576), but uses both names in the mythological narrativeHero and Leander.
^Spenser plays on the conflation of Pluto and Plutus: "but a little stride ... did the house of Richesse from hell-mouth divide" and "Here Sleep, there Richesse, and Hel-gate them both betwext" (24.5), as noted by Thomas E. Maresca, entry on "Hell",The Spencer Encyclopedia, p. 352. SeeOffspring of Pluto (above) on the daughter Spenser invents for Pluto. His favored epithet for Pluto isgriesly, anarchaism for "grisly" (FG I.iv.11.1, II.vii.24.1, IV.iii.13.2, VI.xii.35.6, applied to Proserpina at I.i.37.4; Pluto named also atFG I.v.14.8, II.viii.24.1, VI.xii.35.6, VII.vii.5.9, andThe Shepheardes Calender "October" 29).
^Robert DeMaria Jr. and Robert D. Brown,Classical Literature and Its Reception: An Anthology (Blackwell, 2007), p. 453. BothDis andPluto appear in the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe, butPluto with greater frequency; Spenser prefers the name Pluto.
^Arthur Golding,Ovid's Metamorphoses (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001)passim, with a few instances ofDis; Radford,The Lost Girls, p. 25.
^For instance, atParadise Lost 4.270, as cited by Radford,The Lost Girls, p. 25, where Proserpine is described as a flower fairer than those she was gathering and "by gloomy Dis / was gathered."
^Ovid's Metamorphosis Translated by Arthur Golding, edited by Madeleine Forey, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 164. Pluto rules over Hell throughout Spenser'sFaerie Queene, as noted by Maresca,The Spenser Encyclopedia, p. 352.
^John Block Friedman,Orpheus in the Middle Ages (Syracuse University Press, 2000), p. 238;Li Tournoiemenz Anticrit(Le tornoiement de l'Antéchrist)text.
^Theresa Lynn Tinkle,Medieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry (Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 132.
^The Assembly of Gods, lines 82, 51, 311, 314, in the edition of Oscar Lovell Triggs (London, 1896).
^Entry on "Popular Culture,"The Classical Tradition, p. 766.
^Sheila Lindenbaum, "Ceremony and Oligarchy: The London Midsummer Watch," inCity and Spectacle in Medieval Europe, (University of Minnesota Press, 1994), p. 171; Maria Hayward,Rich Apparel: Clothing and the Law in Henry VIII's England (Ashgate, 2009), p. 290. The court of Pluto continued to inspire public pageantry into the late 19th century, when floats such as the "blazing 'Palace of Pluto'" were part of theMardi Gras parades in New Orleans; Henri Schindler,Mardi Gras Treasures: Costume Designs of the Golden Age (Pelican, 2002), p. 15.
^Nino Pirrotta,Music and Theatre fromPoliziano to Monteverdi (Cambridge University Press, 1992, originally published in Italian 1969),passim, especially p. ix.
^Pirrotta,Music and Theatre fromPoliziano to Monteverdi, withLeonardo's drawing (n.p.); Carlo Pedretti,Leonardo: The Machines (Giunti, 1999), p. 72.
^Mark Ringer,Opera's First Master: The Musical Dramas of Claudio Monteverdi (Amadeus Press, 2006), pp. 34, 75, 103–104; Tim Carter,Monteverdi's Musical Theatre (Yale University Press, 2002), p. 95;Enid Welsford,The Court Masque (Cambridge University Press, 1927), pp. 112–113.
^Tim Carter,Monteverdi's Musical Theatre p. 81, quoting Follino,Compendio delle sontuose feste (1608), and p. 152.
^George J. Buelow,A History of Baroque Music (Indiana University Press, 2004), p. 37.
^Kristiaan Aercke,Gods of Play: Baroque Festive Performances as Rhetorical Discourse (SUNY Press, 1994), p. 230.
^Piero Gelli and Filippo Poletti,Dizionario dell'opera 2008 (Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2005, 2007), p. 36.
^Aercke,Gods of Play, p. 250; Ringer,Opera's First Master, p. 71.
^Andrew Trout,City on the Seine: Paris in the Time of Richelieu and Louis XIV (St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 189–190; Buelow,A History of Baroque Music, p. 160.
^Daniel Heartz,Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720–1780 (W.W. Norton, 2003), pp. 488–492.
^Sasha Anawalt,The Joffrey Ballet: Robert Joffrey and the Making of an American Dance Company (University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 66.
^Frederick Kiefer,Shakespeare's Visual Theatre: Staging the Personified Characters (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 60–61.
^Amy Golahney, "Rembrandt's Abduction of Proserpina," inThe Age of Rembrandt: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Painting (Penn State University Press, 1988), p. 30; Eric Jan Sluijter,Rembrandt and the Female Nude (Amsterdam University Press, 2006), pp. 109–111.
^Mary Margaret Heaton,The History of the Life of Albrecht Dürer of Nürnberg (London, 1870), p. 187; Walter L. Strauss,The Complete Engravings, Etchings, and Drypoints of Albrecht Dürer (Dover, 1973), p. 178.
.jpg)
_-_Orpheus_in_the_Underworld_-_WGA03564.jpg)
