| Plebidonax deltoides | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Bivalvia |
| Order: | Cardiida |
| Family: | Psammobiidae |
| Genus: | Plebidonax |
| Species: | P. deltoides |
| Binomial name | |
| Plebidonax deltoides Lamarck, 1818 | |
| Synonyms | |
Donax deltoides | |
Plebidonax deltoides orDonax deltoides is a small, edible saltwater clam ormarinebivalvemollusc,endemic toAustralia. It belongs to thefamily of either theDonacidae, or the relatedPsammobiidae. It is most widely known as thepipi (also spelledpippi, pluralpipis orpippies) in the eastern states of its native Australia. InSouth Australia, it is called theCoorong cockle,Goolwa cockle, orGoolwa pipi, for the region where it is most abundant, or by itsNgarrindjeri name,kuti. In south-easternQueensland, it is often also known aseugarie or (y)ugari, a borrowing from the localYugambeh andUgarapul languages.
This species should not be confused with the bivalvePaphies australis (of the familyMesodesmatidae), endemic toNew Zealand and also called "pipi".
P. deltoides is an edible bivalve mollusc primarily found from theEyre Peninsula toKingston SE in South Australia and fromTasmania toFraser Island inQueensland, withYounghusband Peninsula (Coorong Beach) in South Australia the site of the largest stock abundance in Australia, where they make up 85% of the total biomass. TheSir Richard Peninsula (Goolwa Beach) and Younghusband Peninsula sand dunes are composed mainly ofP. deltoides shell sediments that have formed over the last 6,600 years.[1]
P. deltoides live on high-energy beaches, the juveniles in theintertidal zone and the adults in thesubtidal zone. They use a strong foot to burrow into the sand to an average depth of 100 mm (3.9 inches) and feed by filteringphytoplankton from the water. They mature at around one year of age and live from four to five years, reaching a maximum size of 80 mm (3.1 in). They aredioecious serial broadcast spawners, with spawning taking place over a long period of time peaking in the spring.Larvae drift asplankton for four to eight weeks in the coastal currents, often travelling large distances. They need heavysurf to live, as the surf concentrates the phytoplankton they feed on and increases the oxygen in the water; after periods of calm weather, they begin to die off.[2]
Donax deltoïdes was first named and briefly described byJean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1818. He indicated that the description was based on specimen(s) collected from Kangaroo Island byFrançois Péron.[3]
In 1930,Tom Iredale proposed three new genera for species that he judged do "not agree with the type ofDonax, nor withChion". These werePlebidonax (typeDonax deltoides Lamarck),Tentidonax (Donax veruinus Hedley), andDeltachion (containing two new species).[4]: 398, 407
Plebidonax has been adopted by some reference works, but has not been widely accepted, with many publications still usingDonax.[5] Other sources treatPlebidonax as a subspecies ofDonax.[6][7] If classified asPlebidonax, it is theonly member of its genus.
A study of five genes published in 2017 found thatP. deltoides grouped with the Psammobiidae, not the Donacidae.[8]
TheNgarrindjeri people had long used pipi, which they called kuti,[9] as an important source of protein in their diet. Cooked on hot coals or in mud ovens, kuti was eaten on the beach. Numerous ancientshell middens still in evidence around theCoorong andGoolwa beaches, as well as areas now underwater, attest to this practice.[citation needed] AfterBritish colonisation of South Australia and the establishment of theRaukkan (previously Point McLeay) mission in 1859, the Ngarrindjeri were removed from their land, thereby becoming unable to access their traditional fishing and hunting grounds. Famous Ngarrindjeri author and inventorDavid Unaipon (who is featured on theAustralian $50 note) asked the 1913Royal Commission on the Aborigines for a fishing licence, but this was not granted.[10]
From then until the 1990s, pipis were primarily used by Europeans asbait in South Australia, and it was not untilItalianimmigrants introducedvongole into restaurants in the 1990s that prices increased to the point of viability for commercial fishing. In 2004, regulations regarding human consumption were included into theFisheries Act 1982,[11] and 32 licences to harvest unlimited quantities were offered atA$150,000 each. Subsequently, imported Asian clam species have largely replacedP. deltoides as bait because of their lower cost.[citation needed]
TheCockle Train, the oldest steel-tracked railway in Australia, was built in 1854 fromPort Elliot toGoolwa to transfer cargo from ocean-going vessels to river boats. The train acquired its name due to its extensive use by colonists to collect pipis from beaches near themouth of the Murray River. Originally 11 km (6.8 miles) in length, the line was extended toVictor Harbor in 1864 and is now a popular tourist attraction[12]
During the 2008 season, owing to surging demand and decreasing catches,[13] aquota of 600 tonnes (660 tons) was introduced to manage the resource; commercial fishing was restricted to the Younghusband Peninsula, from a point 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the centre of the Murray mouth toKingston, with recreational fishers banned from catching in these areas.[14] It was subsequently found that 11 of the licences — primarily multi-generational local family fishing companies — were allocated only 1% of the quota each, which would fail to cover their overheads, while 10 licences supplying European markets were allocated up to 15% of the quota each. Two groups lobbiedParliament to protect the respective interests: Goolwa Cockle Working Group representing the 10 large quota holders, and the Southern Fisherman's Association representing the small quotas. TheSouth Australian Legislative Council overturned the quotas on 23 June 2008 on the basis of unfairness.[15]
The November 2008 to May 2009 season was closed after the fishery dramatically collapsed, with more than 95% of the catch consisting of undersize juveniles. A Parliamentary enquiry is investigatingDepartment of Primary Industries and Resources (PIRSA) for its failure to manage the fishery.[16] An independent organisation,The Goolwa Pipi Harvesters Association — inaugurated in October 2009 — was tasked with ensuring the sustainable development of theP. deltoides retail and export industry. The initial quota for future seasons was set at 600 tonnes annually, less than 2% of the 2008 quota.[17]
In October 2009 the government reduced the commercial quota to 300 tonnes, and delayed the start of the 2010 season until December.[18] Previously, recreational fishers had been requested to voluntarily limit their catches to 600 per day; however, a new recreational bag limit of 300 per person was now enforceable by law. During the weekend of 9–10 January, fisheries officials patrolled the Victor Harbor and Goolwa Beaches, inspecting over 1,000 recreational catches. Four fishers were fined for exceeding the bag limit and ten for taking undersized individuals; 15,000 undersizedP. deltoides were returned to the water.[19]
Owing to a recovery of fishery stocks, the State Government increased the commercial quota from 300 to 330 tonnes for the 2011 season, the start of which was voluntarily delayed until 1 December 2010. Recreational fishers were permitted to collect on the Younghusband Peninsula between 28 Mile Beach and Kingston jetty. Commercial fishers without a quota could takeP. deltoides for their own personal use as bait with a catch limit of 10 kg (22 lb) per day. It was illegal for commercial fishers without quotas to sell or tradeP. deltoides. The size limit was not increased but would instead be reviewed annually, and the Goolwa cockle was officially renamedpipi by PIRSA.[20][21]
For the 2012 season, the state government increased the commercial quota from 330 to 400 tonnes and announced its intention to proclaim a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) section of the Younghusband Peninsula a marine sanctuary to provide some protection for future stocks. In reply, commercial fishers announced they planned to lobby the government to either provide compensation or move the sanctuary to a location that would have a lower impact on commercial fishing.[22]
After the popularity of the pipi had surged in the preceding five years, a new partnership began betweenIndigenous enterprise Kuti Co. and the highly successful Goolwa Pipi Co., which had established a processing facility at Port Elliott.[10] The partnership deal was struck soon after the Goolwa Pipi Co. had taken over the lease of a beach café at Goolwa, renamed Kuti Shack.[23] The new arrangement saw dozens of Ngarrindjeri workers employed at various stages of production, helping to bring cultural pride and understanding of their heritage.[10]
From March 2025, aharmful algal bloom caused byKarenia mikimotoioccurred in South Australia,[24] ongoing as of October 2025.[25] Many marine animals were affected by the bloom, including the pipis, and Goolwa Pipi Co. employees were put out of work and income.[26]
Pipis were taken commercially fromSouth Gippsland beaches in "massive quantities" until depletion of stocks in the 1970s reduced the fishery to recreational fishers. Recreational fishers were limited to five litres a person per day until this was reduced to two litres in 2009 due to concern over family groups collecting far in excess of regulations. Recreational fishers required a fishing licence and were prohibited from using tools; pipis must be dug up using hands or feet only.[27][28]
A small commercial fishery with no size or catch limit existed since the 1950s, harvesting from 100 to 450 tonnes per year in the 1990s, though this tonnage declined from 1998 because of contamination fromalgae biotoxins.[29][30] Commercial harvesting in New South Wales is by hand, with 99% of the commercial catch being taken north ofSydney, half fromStockton Beach. To share the resource and to minimise harvesting for sale on the black market, recreational fishers were allowed a bag limit of 50 pipis per day, to be used only for bait because of a number of biotoxin poisoning cases. According to a 1999 survey, recreational fishers were estimated to take around 45 tonnes per year, 92% for consumption and 8% for bait.
In 2011, following concerns that the fishery may collapse, the Department of Primary Industries implemented a partial season closure and minimum commercial size limit of 40 mm (1.6 in), although recreational fishing has not been further constrained.[31] The NSW Status of Fisheries[32] lists the pipi exploitation status as "Uncertain".
