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Pithom (Ancient Egyptian:pr-jtm;Biblical Hebrew:פִּתֹם,romanized: Pīṯōm;Koinē Greek:Ἡρώπόλις,romanized: Hērṓpólis orἩρώωνπόλιςHērṓōnpólis,[2] andΠατούμοςPatoúmos) was an ancient city of Egypt. References in theHebrew Bible andancient Greek andRoman sources[3] exist for this city, but its exact location remains somewhat uncertain. Some scholars identified it as the later archaeological site ofTell el-Maskhuta (Arabic:تل المسخوطة,romanized: Tall al-Masḫuṭa).[4] Others identified it as the earlier archaeological site ofTell El Retabeh (Arabic:تل الرتابة,romanized: Tall al-Ratāba).[5]
The English name comes from HebrewפיתוםPithom which was taken from theEgyptian toponympr-(j)tm, "House ofAtum". Atum's cult center was inHeliopolis.[6]
Pithom is one of the cities which, according to theBook of Exodus1:11, was built for thebiblical Pharaoh of the oppression by theforced labour of theIsraelites. The other city wasPi-Ramesses. TheSeptuagint adds a third, "On, which isHeliopolis." These cities are called by a term rendered in the Authorized Version "treasure cities" and in the Revised Version "store cities" (Hebrew:מסכְּנוֹת֙,romanized: miskǝnoṯ). The Septuagint renders itπόλεις ὀχυραί "strong [or "fortified"] cities." The same term is used for certain cities ofKing Solomon inI Kings 9:19 (comp. alsoII Chronicles 16:4).
Heroöpolis was a large city east of theNile Delta, situated near the mouth of theRoyal Canal which connected theNile with theRed Sea. Although not immediately upon the coast, but nearly due north of theBitter Lakes, Heroöpolis was of sufficient importance, as a trading station, to confer its name upon the arm of the Red Sea[7] which runs up the Egyptian mainland as far asArsinoë (near modernSuez)—the modernGulf of Suez.[8] It was the capital of the 8thnome ofLower Egypt.
Early on, the location of Pithom—just like the locations of other similar sites, such asTanis—had been the subject of much conjecture and debate.
The 10th-century Jewish scholarSaadia Gaon identified Pithom's location in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Hebrew Bible as theFaiyum, 100 kilometres (62 miles) southwest ofCairo.[9]
Édouard Naville andFlinders Petrie were looking for Pithom along theWadi Tumilat, an arable strip of land serving as the ancient transit route between Egypt and Canaan across the Sinai—the biblical 'Way ofShur'.[10]
Eight miles west of Tell El Maskhuta is the site of Tell El Retabeh. This is approximately the midpoint of Wadi Tumilat. The earliest find known from the site is the jasper weight of kingNebkaure Khety, but such an object might have been brought from elsewhere. Naville identified all these locations as being in the region ofTjeku (Sukkot), the 8th Lower Egyptnome.
Excavations at the Tell El Retabeh have shown that the site was first settled during theSecond Intermediate Period of Egypt. Following the expulsion of theHyksos during the reign ofAhmose I, a short-lived Egyptian settlement followed but ended in the middle of the 18th Dynasty. At the beginning of the19th Dynasty of Egypt, a newer settlement was established, andRamesses II built new fortifications, a Temple of Atum and many other structures. The site was inhabited also under the 20th Dynasty, the Third Intermediate Period (11th–7th century BC) and the Late Period (7th–4th century BC).[11][12]
Some scholars, such asManfred Bietak andKenneth Kitchen, have argued that this was the ancient Pithom.[10] This opinion goes back to the 19th century, whenAlan Gardiner first identified Pithom with the site of Tell El Retaba, and this was later accepted byWilliam F. Albright,[13] and Kenneth Kitchen.[14] AlthoughJohn van Seters andNeil Asher Silberman argue that Tell El Retaba was unoccupied during the period when we find monuments relating to a town called Pithom,[15] this claim has been disputed byJames K. Hoffmeier andGary Rendsburg based on recent findings at the site.[16]
The jointPolish-Slovak expedition has carried out a systematic research at Tell El Retaba since 2007.[17] It is conducted with the cooperation of several institutions: Institute of ArchaeologyUniversity of Warsaw, thePolish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw, theSlovak Academy of Sciences and the Aigyptos Foundation.[11]
More recent analyses have demonstrated that the designation for the temple of Atum,pr-itm, can be found in inscriptions at both sites—both at Tell El Retaba and at Tell El Maskhuta. This seems to demonstrate that the name 'Pithom' was used originally for the earlier site, Tell El Retaba, before it was abandoned. When the newer city of Tel El Maskhuta was built, the same name was applied to it as well, as the temple of Atum was moved to El Maskhuta. Thus, in effect, 'Pithom' was moved to a new location, a phenomenon that is attested for some other cities as well, such asMigdol.[18]
In the spring of 1883, Naville believed he had identified Pithom as the archaeological siteTell El Maskhuta. The site of Pithom, as identified by Naville, is at the eastern edge of Wadi Tumilat, southwest ofIsmailia. Petrie agreed with this identification. John S. Holladay Jr., a more recent investigator of the site, also supports this opinion. Alternatively, the recent Italian excavators have suggested identifying the site as the ancient city of Tjeku (BiblicalSukkot).[19]
Here was found a group of granite statues representingRamesses II, two inscriptions namingPr-Itm (Temple of Atum), storehouses and bricks made without straw. Recent excavations have also uncovered a significantNew Kingdom tomb at the site.[19] The excavations carried on by Naville for theEgypt Exploration Fund uncovered a city wall, a ruined temple, and the remains of a series of brick buildings with very thick walls and consisting of rectangular chambers of various sizes, opening only at the top and without any entrances to one another.
Modern excavations at Tel El Maskhuta were carried out by theUniversity of Toronto 'Wadi Tumilat Project' under the direction of John S. Holladay Jr. They worked over five seasons between 1978 and 1985. These excavations have shown that the history of Tel El Maskhuta is quite complex. There was a Middle Bronze IIB settlement there (18th–17th centuries BC), associated with theHyksos, followed by a long break until the late 7th century BC, when there was rebuilding.[20]
This construction at the end of the 7th century may have been carried out by PharaohNecho II, possibly as part of his uncompleted canal building project from the Nile to the Gulf of Suez.[15][21]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). "Pithom".Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray. This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906)."Pithom".The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.| International | |
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