Kabisay-an /Mga Bisaya | |
|---|---|
 A Visayan couple of noble blood,Boxer Codex, ca. 1590 | |
| Total population | |
| 33,463,654[citation needed] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Visayas, large parts ofMindanao, southernmost parts ofLuzon, the rest of thePhilippines andoverseas communities | |
| Languages | |
| Native Bisayan languages Also Filipino • English | |
| Religion | |
| Christianity:Roman Catholic,Aglipayan,Evangelicals, remaining belongs toUnited Church of Christ in the Philippines,Iglesia ni Cristo;Sunni Islam;Hinduism;Animism and other religions[1] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Tausūg people,Zamboangueño people,Tagalog people,Austronesian people and otherFilipinos |
Visayans (Cebuano:mga Bisayà[bisaˈjaʔ]) are aPhilippine ethnolinguistic family group ormetaethnicity native to theVisayas, to the southernmost islands south ofLuzon, and to a significant portion ofMindanao. They are composed of numerous distinct ethnic groups, many unrelated to each other. When taken as a single group, they number around 33.5 million. The Visayans, like the Luzon Lowlanders (Tagalogs, Bicolanos, Ilocanos, etc.) were originally predominantlyanimist-polytheists and broadly share a maritimeculture until the 16th century when theSpanish Empire enforcedCatholicism as the state religion. In more inland or otherwise secluded areas, ancient animistic-polytheistic beliefs and traditions either werereinterpreted within a Roman Catholicframework orsyncretized with the new religion. Visayans are generally speakers of one or more of the distinctBisayan languages, the most widely spoken beingCebuano, followed byHiligaynon (Ilonggo) andWaray-Waray.[2]
"Visayan" is theanglicization of thehispanized termBisayas (archaicBiçayas), in turn derived from VisayanBisaya.Kabisay-an refers both to the Visayan people collectively and the islands they have inhabited since prehistory, theVisayas. The exact meaning and origin of the nameBisaya is unknown. The first documented use of the name is possibly by Song-era Chinese maritime officialZhao Rugua who wrote about the "Pi-sho-ye", who raided the coasts ofFujian andPenghu during the late 12th century using iron javelins attached to ropes as their weapons.[3][4][5]
Visayans were first referred to by the general termPintados ("the painted ones") by the Spanish, in reference to the prominent practice of full-body tattooing (batok).[6] The wordBisaya, on the other hand, was first documented in Spanish sources in reference to the non-Ati inhabitants of the island ofPanay. However, it is likely that the name was already used as a generalendonym by Visayans long before Spanish colonization, as evidenced by at least one instance of a place named "Bisaya" in coastal eastern Mindanao as reported by theLoaisa (c.1526),Saavedra (c.1528), and theVillalobos (c.1543) expeditions. It is likely that the reason the Spanish did not use the term generally until the later decades of the 1500s is due to the fact that people were more likely to identify themselves with more specific ethnic names likeSugbuanon.[7]
InSucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) byAntonio de Morga, he specifies that the name "Biçaya" is synonymous withPintados.[8]
"South of this district lie the islands of Biçayas, or, as they are also called, Pintados. They are many in number, thickly populated with natives. Those of most renown areLeite,Ybabao,Çamar,Bohol, island ofNegros,Sebu,Panay,Cuyo, and theCalamianes. All the natives of these islands, both men and women, are well-featured, of a good disposition, and of better nature, and more noble in their actions than the inhabitants of the islands ofLuzon and its vicinity.
They differ from them in their hair, which the men wear cut in a cue, like the ancient style in España. Their bodies are tattooed with many designs, but the face is not touched. They wear large earrings of gold and ivory in their ears, and bracelets of the same; certain scarfs wrapped round the head, very showy, which resemble turbans, and knotted very gracefully and edged with gold. They wear also a loose collarless jacket with tight sleeves, whose skirts reach half way down the leg. These garments are fastened in front and are made ofmedriñaque and coloredsilks. They wear no shirts or drawers, butbahaques of many wrappings, which cover their privy parts, when they remove their skirts and jackets. The women are good-looking and graceful. They are very neat, and walk slowly. Their hair is black, long, and drawn into a knot on the head.Their robes are wrapped about the waist and fall downward. These are made of all colors, and they wear collarless jackets of the same material. Both men and women go naked and without any coverings, and barefoot, and with many gold chains, earrings, and wrought bracelets.
Their weapons consist of guns curved like cutlasses, spears, andcaraças. They employ the same kinds of boats as the inhabitants of Luzon. They have the same occupations, products, and means of gain as the inhabitants of all the other islands. These Visayans are a race less inclined to agriculture, and are skilful in navigation, and eager for war and raids for pillage and booty, which they callmangubas. This means "to go out for plunder."
. . .
The language of all the Pintados and Biçayas is one and the same, by which they understand one another when talking, or when writing with the letters and characters of their own which they possess.These resemble those of the Arabs. The common manner of writing among the natives is on leaves of trees, and on bamboo bark.
— Antonio de Morga,Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) translated inMorga's Philippine Islands (1907) byEmma Helen Blair andJames Alexander Robertson,[8]
The first Spanish-Visayan dictionary written was for theWaray language in theBocabulario de la lengua Bisaya by Mateo Sánchez, which was completed in 1617 inLeyte. This was followed by theBocabulario de la lengua Bisaya-Hiligueyna y Haraía de las islas de Panay y Sugbu, y para las demás islas (1637) by Alonso de Méntrida which in turn was for theHiligaynon language, with notes on theAklanon andKinaray-a languages. Both these works demonstrate that the termBisaya was used as a general term for Visayans by the Spanish.[9]
Another general term for Visayans in early Spanish records isHiligueinos (also spelledYliguenes,Yligueynes, orHiligueynos; from VisayanIligan orIliganon, meaning "people of the coast"). It was used by the SpanishconquistadorMiguel de Loarca inRelacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1582) as a general name for coastal-dwelling Visayans not only inPanay, but alsoCebu,Bohol, andWestern Negros. Today, the demonym is only used specifically for theHiligaynon people, a major Visayan subgroup.[10]
InNorthern Mindanao, Visayans (both Mindanao natives and modern migrants) are also referred to by theLumad as thedumagat ("sea people", from the root worddagat - "sea"; not to be confused with theDumagat Aeta in Luzon). This was to distinguish the coast-dwelling Visayans from the Lumad of the interior highlands and marshlands.[11]
The followingregions andprovinces in the Philippines have a sizeable or predominant Visayan population:
| Mimaropa andBicol | Western Visayas | Negros | Central Visayas | Eastern Visayas | Zamboanga Peninsula | Northern Mindanao | Caraga Region | Davao Region | Soccsksargen |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Notable Visayan polities in the pre-colonial period include the following:
The firstFilipino people encountered by theMagellan expedition (c. 1521) were Visayans from the island ofSuluan; followed by two rulers of theSurigaonon andButuanon people on a hunting expedition inLimasawa, Rajah Colambu and Rahah Siaui; and finallyRajah Humabon ofCebu. Magellan describes the Suluanon people he encountered as "painted" (tattooed), with gold earrings and armlets, andkerchiefs around their heads. They described Rajah Colambu as having dark hair that hung down to his shoulders,tawny skin, and tattoos all throughout his body. They also noted the large amount of gold ornaments he wore, from large gold earrings to goldtooth fillings. Rajah Colambu wore embroideredpatadyong that covered him from the waist to the knees, as well as a kerchief around his head. They also described theboloto (bangka) and the largebalanghai (balangay) warships, and the custom of drinkingpalm wine (uraka) and chewingareca nut. They also described the queen of Cebu as being young and beautiful and covered in white and black cloth. She painted her lips and nails red, and wore a large disc-shaped hat (sadok) made from elaborately-woven leaves.[12]: 132–161 [13]
The 16th century marks the beginning of the Christianization of the Visayan people, with the baptism ofRajah Humabon and about 800 native Cebuanos. The Christianization of the Visayans and Filipinos in general, is commemorated by theAti-Atihan Festival ofAklan, theDinagyang Festival ofIloilo, and theSinulog festival the feast of theSanto Niño de Cebu (Holy Child of Cebu), the brown-skinned depiction of the Child Jesus given by Magellan to Rajah Humabon's wife, Hara Amihan (baptized as Queen Juana). By the 17th century, Visayans already took part in religious missions. In 1672,Pedro Calungsod, a teenage indigenous Visayan catechist andDiego Luis de San Vitores, a Spanish friar, were both martyred inGuam during their mission to preach Christianity to theChamorro people.[14]
By the end of the 19th century, theSpanish Empire weakened after a series of wars with itsAmerican territories. The surge of newer ideas from the outside world thanks to the liberalization of trade by theBourbon Spain fostered a relatively larger middle class population called theIlustrados or "the Enlightened Ones." This then became an incentive for the new generation of educated political visionaries to fulfill their dreams of independence from three centuries of colonial rule. Some prominent leaders of thePhilippine Revolution in the late 19th century were Visayans. Among leaders of the Propaganda movement wasGraciano López Jaena, theIlonggo who established the propagandist publicationLa Solidaridad (The Solidarity). In the Visayan theater of the Revolution, Pantaleón Villegas (better known asLeón Kilat) led the Cebuano revolution in the Battle ofTres de Abril (April 3). One of his successors,Arcadio Maxilom, is a prominent general in the liberalization ofCebu.[15] Earlier in 1897,Aklan fought against the Spaniards with Francisco Castillo and Candido Iban at the helm. Both were executed after a failed offensive.[16]Martin Delgado led the rebellion in neighboringIloilo. Led byJuan Araneta with the assistance ofAniceto Lacson,Negros Occidental was freed whileNegros Oriental was liberated by Diego de la Viña. The former would be called theNegros Revolution or theCinco de Noviembre.[17] Movements inCapiz were led by Esteban Contreras with the aid of Alejandro Balgos, Santiago Bellosillo and other Ilustrados.[18][19] Meanwhile, Leandro Locsin Fullon spearheaded the liberalization ofAntique.[20] Most of these revolutionaries would continue their fight for independence until thePhilippine–American War. There was also a less heard and short-lived uprising called the Igbaong Revolt which occurred in Igbaong, Antique steered by Maximo and Gregorio Palmero. This revolt, however, wassecularly-motivated as they clamored for a moresyncretic form of religion based on Visayan animist traditions and Christianity.[21]
At the peak of thePhilippine Revolution, anti-colonial insurgencies sprung fromLuzon up to theVisayas. Despite military support from theTagalog Republic led byEmilio Aguinaldo, Visayan revolutionary leaders were skeptical toward the real motives of theTagalogs.[22] Such ethnic animosity was notable to the point that local Visayan leaders demanded forces sent from the north to surrender their armaments and were prohibited to leave revolutionary bases. Moreover, this apprehension led to the full declaration of the Federal State of Visayas on December 12, 1898.[23] This short-lived federal government, based inIloilo, was an accumulation of revolutionary movements acrossPanay andNegros. The following were the elected officials four days prior to the declaration:[24]
| Position | Name |
|---|---|
| General-President | Anecito Lacson |
| Treasurer | Eusebio Luzurriaga |
| Executive Secretary | Melecio Severino |
| Secretary of War | Juan Araneta |
| Secretary Of Interior | Simeón Lizares |
| Secretary of Public Works | Nicolás Gólez |
| Secretary of Justice | Antonio Jayme Ledesma |
| Secretary of Agriculture and Commerce | Agustín Amenablar |
The federation was immediately formed upon the merger of the Cantonal Government of Negros,[25] the Cantonal Government of Bohol and theProvisional Government of the District of Visayas (based inPanay) which includedRomblon. It was said to be based on American federalism and Swiss confederacy. Despite their skepticism towards Malolos, the Visayan government proclaimed its loyalty to the Luzon-based republic while maintaining their own governance, tax collection and army.Apolinario Mabini, then the prime minister of the Malolos republic convinced the Visayan leaders that theMalolos Constitution was only provisional and that the governments in Visayas and Mindanao were promised the power to co-ratify it.[26][27]
After the1898 Treaty of Paris, the American colonial government saw the integral part of indigenous elites particularly inNegros in local affairs. This was a different move compared to the previous Spanish imperialists who created a racial distinction betweenmestizos and native Austronesians (indios). As such, this paved the way for a homogenous concept of aFilipino albeit initially based on financial and political power. These said elites were thehacienderos or the landed, bourgeois-capitalist class concentrated within the sugar cane industry of Negros. The Americans' belief that these hacienderos would be strategic elements in their political hold within the newly acquired colony bolstered the drafting of a separate colonial constitution by and for the sugar industry elites. This constitution likewise established the Negros Cantonal Government. This ensured that the island of Negros would be governed by an indigenous civilian government in contrast to the rest of colonist-controlled areas governed by the American-dominatedPhilippine Commission.[28]
During this period, the eastern islands ofSamar,Leyte andBiliran (includingMarinduque) were directly governed by the Malolos Republic through Vicente Lukban and later by Ambrosio Mojica.[29] Meanwhile, prior to the full abolition of the federal government on November 12, 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo appointed Martin Delgado as the civil and military governor of Iloilo on April 28, 1899, upon American invasion ofAntique. The federal government, much to its rejection of the Cebuano leaders who supported theKatipunan cause, was dissolved upon the Iloilo leaders' voluntary union with the newly formedFirst Philippine Republic.[30] Other factors which led to Aguinaldo forcing the Visayans to dissolve their government was due to the federation's resistance from reorganizing its army and forwarding taxes to Malolos.[31]
SincePhilippine independence from the United States, there have been fourPhilippine Presidents from the Visayan regions: the CebuanoSergio Osmeña, the CapiznonManuel Roxas, the BoholanoCarlos P. García (who is actually ofIlocano descent through his parents fromBangued,Abra), and the DavaoeñoRodrigo Duterte.
In addition, the Visayas has produced threeVice-Presidents, fourSenate Presidents, nineSpeakers of the House, sixChief Justices, and sixPresidential Spouses includingImelda Marcos, a Waray. The then-presidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo is also half Cebuano. Former presidentRodrigo Duterte, who is ofVisayan ethnicity, also has Leyteño roots. Incumbent presidentBongbong Marcos, is of Visayan descent through his Waray mother Imelda Marcos. In international diplomacy the Visayas has produced a United Nations Undersecretary general, theNegros Occidental nativeRafael M. Salas who served as the Head of theUNFPA. In the lines of religion, there have been three VisayanCardinals, namelyJulio Rosales fromSamar,Jaime Sin fromAklan andJose Advincula fromCapiz. The first Visayan and secondFilipino that was canonized isPedro Calungsod.[32]
Throughout centuries, non-Visayan groups, most notably migrants from Luzon and foreigners such as the Chinese, have settled in predominantly-Visayan cities in Visayas likeIloilo,Bacolod,Dumaguete andCebu andMindanao such asCagayan de Oro,Iligan,Davao andGeneral Santos.[33][34] TheseFilipino-Chinese have been assimilated to mainstream society. One factor would be the limited number of Chinese schools in the Visayas which help maintain the Chinese identity and a stronger sense of a distinct community.[35] Many of them, particularly the younger generation, have been de-cultured fromChinese traditions, share values about family and friends with other Filipinos, and do not write or speakChinese well.[36][37]Mexicans, Spaniards and Frenchmen were also settlers in the Visayas and can be found in the Visayan provinces ofNegros,Cebu,Leyte andIloilo.[38]
Meanwhile,Negritos, locally calledAti, have also been assimilated into mainstream Visayan society.
In Mindanao, migrant ethnic individuals from Luzon as well asLumad assimilated into a society of Cebuano-speaking majority (Hiligaynon-speaking majority in the case of Soccsksargen) over many years, identifying themselves as Visayans upon learning Cebuano (or Hiligaynon) despite many of them still know and retain their non-Visayan roots and some speak their ancestor's language fluently at least as their second or third languages, since Mindanao is melting pot of different cultures as a result of southward migration from Luzon and Visayas to the island since 20th century. Descendants of these migrant Luzon ethnic groups especially newer generations (as Mindanao-born natives) and Lumad individuals now speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently as their main language with little or no knowledge of their ancestors' native tongues at the time of leaving their respective homelands in Luzon heading south, as for the Lumad, due to the contact with Cebuano- and Hiligaynon-speaking neighbors.[39]
Visayans have likewise migrated to other parts of the Philippines, especiallyMetro Manila andMindanao. The Visayans have also followed the pattern of migration ofFilipinos abroad and some have migrated to other parts of the world starting from theSpanish andAmerican period and afterWorld War II. Most are migrants or working asoverseas contract workers.
Ethnic Visayans predominantly speak at least one of theBisayan languages, most of which are commonly referred asBinisaya orBisaya. The table below lists the Philippine languages classified as Bisayan languages by theSummer Institute of Linguistics. Although all of the languages indicated below areclassified as "Bisayan" by linguistic terminology, not all speakers identify themselves as ethnically or culturally Visayan. TheTausūg, aMoro ethnic group, only useBisaya to refer to the predominantly Christian lowland natives which Visayans are popularly recognized as.[40] This is a similar case to theAti, who delineate Visayans from fellowNegritos. Conversely, the Visayans ofCapul inNorthern Samar speakAbaknon, aSama–Bajaw language, as their native tongue.
| Language | Speakers | Date/source |
|---|---|---|
| Aklanon | 394,545 | 1990 census |
| Ati | 1,500 | 1980 SIL |
| Bantoanon (Asi) | 200,000 | 2002 SIL |
| Butuanon | 34,547 | 1990 census |
| Caluyanon | 30,000 | 1994 SIL |
| Capiznon | 638,653 | 2000 |
| Cebuano1 | 20,043,502 | 1995 census |
| Cuyonon | 123,384 | 1990 census |
| Hiligaynon1 | 7,000,000 | 1995 |
| Inonhan | 85,829 | 2000 WCD |
| Kinaray-a | 377,529 | 1994 SIL |
| Malaynon | 8,500 | 1973 SIL |
| Masbatenyo | 350,000 | 2002 SIL |
| Porohanon | 23,000 | 1960 census |
| Ratagnon | 310 | 2010 Ethnologue |
| Romblomanon | 200,000 | 1987 SIL |
| Sorsogon, Masbate | 85,000 | 1975 census |
| Sorsogon, Waray | 185,000 | 1975 census |
| Surigaonon | 344,974 | 1990 census |
| Tausug2 | 2,175,000 | 2012 SIL |
| Waray-Waray | 2,437,688 | 1990 census |
| Total | 33,463,654 |
1 Philippines only.
2 Philippines only; 1,022,000 worldwide.
Like most other pre-colonialethnic groups in the Philippines and otherAustronesian groups, tattooing was widespread among Visayans. The original Spanish name for the Visayans,Los Pintados ("The Painted Ones") was a reference to the tattoos of the Visayans.Antonio Pigafetta of theMagellan expedition (c. 1521) repeatedly describes the Visayans they encountered as "painted all over".[12]
_-_Philippines_(c.1668).jpg)
Tattooing traditions were lost over time among almost all Visayans duringChristianization in the Spanish colonial period. It is unclear whether the relatedTausug people, who are a subset of southern Visayans who Islamized from the 13th century, practiced tattooing before they took up Islam. Today, traditional tattooing among Visayans only survives among some of the older members of theSulodnon people of the interior highlands ofPanay, the descendants of ancient Visayans who escaped Spanish conversion.[41]
Tattoos were known asbatuk (orbatok) orpatik among Visayans. These terms were also applied to identical designs used in woven textiles, pottery, and other decorations. Tattooed people were known generally asbinatakan orbatokan (also known to theTagalog people asbatikan, which also means "renowned" or "skilled"). Both sexes had tattoos. They were symbols of tribal identity and kinship, as well as bravery, beauty, and social status. It was expected of adults to have them, with the exception of theasog (feminized men) for whom it was socially acceptable to bemapuraw orpuraw (unmarked). Tattoos were so highly regarded that men will often just wear a loincloth (bahag) to show them off.[9][42]
"The principal clothing of the Cebuanos and all the Visayans is the tattooing of which we have already spoken, with which a naked man appears to be dressed in a kind of handsome armor engraved with very fine work, a dress so esteemed by them they take it for their proudest attire, covering their bodies neither more nor less than aChrist crucified, so that although for solemn occasions they have themarlotas (robes) we mentioned, their dress at home and in theirbarrio is their tattoos and abahag, as they call that cloth they wrap around their waist, which is the sort the ancient actors and gladiators used in Rome for decency's sake."
— Pedro Chirino,Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604),[9]
The Visayan language itself had various terminologies relating to tattoos likekulmat ("to show off new tattoos) andhundawas ("to bare the chest and show off tattoos for bravado"). Men who were tattooed but have not participated in battles were scorned ashalo (monitor lizard), in the sense of being tattooed but undeserving.Baug orbinogok referred to the healing period after being tattooed.Lusak ("mud") refers to tattoos that had damaged designs due to infection. Famous heroes covered in tattoos were known aslipong.[9]
.jpg)
Tattoos are acquired gradually over the years, and patterns can take months to complete and heal. They were made by skilled artists using the distinctively Austronesian hafted tattooing technique. This involves using a small hammer to tap the tattooing needle (one or several) set perpendicularly on a wooden handle in an L-shape (hence "hafted"). The ink was made fromsoot or ashes and water or plant extracts (like those fromCayratia trifolia) and was known asbiro. The tattooing process were sacred events that required chicken or pig sacrifices to the ancestor spirits (diwata). Artists were usually paid with livestock, heirloom beads, or precious metals.[9][43][41]
The first tattoos were acquired during the initiation into adulthood. They are initially made on the ankles, gradually moving up to the legs and finally the waist. These tattoos were known ashinawak ("of the waist"). These were done on all men, and did not indicate special status. Tattoos on the upper body, however, were only done after notable feats (including in love) and after participation in battles. Once the chest and throat are covered, tattoos are further applied to the back. Tattoos on the chin and face (reaching up to the eyelids) are restricted to the most elite warriors. These face tattoos are calledbangut ("muzzle") orlangi ("gaping [jaws/beaks]") and are often designed to resemble frightening masks. They may also be further augmented withscarification (labong) burned into the arms. Women were tattooed only on the hands in very fine and intricate designs resemblingdamask embroidery.[9][44]
Tattoo designs varied by region. They can be repeating geometric designs, stylized representations of animals (like snakes and lizards), and floral or sun-like patterns. The most basic design was thelabid, which was an inch-wide continuous tattoo that covered the legs to the waist in straight or zigzagging lines. Shoulder tattoos were known asablay; chest tattoos up to the throat were known asdubdub; and arm tattoos were known asdaya-daya (alsotagur inPanay).[9]
In addition to tattoos, Visayans also had otherbody modifications. These includeartificial cranial deformation, in which the forehead of infants was pressed against a comb-like device calledtangad. The ideal skull shape for adults was for the forehead to slope backwards with a more elongated back part of the skull. Adults with skulls shaped this way were known astinangad, in contrast with those of unshaped skulls calledondo. Men were alsocircumcised (more accuratelysupercised), practicedpearling, or wore pin-shapedgenital piercings calledtugbuk which was anchored by decorative rivets calledsakra. Both men and women also hadear piercings (1 to 2 on each ear for men, and 3 to 4 for women) and wore huge ring-shaped earrings,earplugs around 4 cm (1.6 in) wide, or pendant earrings.[9] Gold teeth fillings were also common for renowned warriors.Teeth filing andteeth blackening were also practiced.[41][45][46][47]
Prior to the arrival ofCatholicism, precolonial Visayans adhered to a complexanimist andHindu-Buddhist system where spirits in nature were believed to govern all existing life. Similar to otherethnic groups in the Philippines such as theTagalogs who believed in a pantheon of gods, the Visayans also adhered to deities led by a supreme being. Such belief, on the other hand, was misinterpreted by arriving Spaniards such asJesuit historianPedro Chirino to be a form ofmonotheism.[48] There are Kaptan and Magwayan, supreme god of the sky and goddess of the sea and death, respectively. They in turn bore two children, Lihangin, god of wind, and Lidagat, goddess of the sea. Both aforementioned gods had four children, namely Likabutan, the god of the world, Liadlaw, the god of the sun, Libulan, the god of the moon, and Lisuga, the goddess of the stars.[49] People believed that life transpires amidst the will of and reverence towards gods and spirits. These deities who dwell within nature were collectively called thediwata (a local adaptation of the Hindu or BuddhistDevata).[50] The Visayans adored (either for fear or veneration) variousDiwatas . Early Spanish colonizers observed that some of these deities of the Visayas, have sinister characters, and so, the colonizers called them evil gods. TheseDiwatas live in rivers, forests, mountains, and the natives fear even to cut the grass in these places believed to be where the lesser gods abound.[51] These places are described, even now (after more than four hundred years of Christianization in the region), asmariit (enchanted and dangerous). The natives would makepanabi-tabi (courteous and reverent request for permission) when inevitably constrained to pass or come near these sites. Miguel de Loarca in hisRelacion de las Yslas Filipinas (Arevalo: June 1582) described them. Some are the following:
Some Spanish colonial historians, including Isabelo de los Reyes y Florentino, would classify some heroes and demigods of the Panay epicHinilawod, likeLabaw Donggon, among these Diwatas.[56]
In the above-mentioned report of Miguel de Loarca, the Visayans' belief regarding the origin of the world and the creation of the first man and woman was recorded. The narrative says:[57]
The people of the coast, who are calledYligueynes, believed that the heaven and earth had no beginning and that there were two gods, one calledCaptan and the otherMaguayen. They believed that the breeze and the sea were married; and that the land breeze brought forth a reed, which was planted by the god Captan. When the reed grew, it broke into two sections, from which came a man and a woman. To the man they gave the nameSilalac, and that is the reason why men from that time on have been calledlalac; the woman they namedSicavay, and henceforth women have been calledbabaye...'
One day the man asked the woman to marry him for there were no other people in the world; but she refused, saying they were brother and sister, born of the same reed, with only one know between them. Finally, they agreed to ask the advice from the tunnies of the sea and from the doves of the earth. They also went to the earthquake, which said that it was necessary for them to marry, so that the world might be peopled.
The Visayans believed that when the time comes for a person to die, the diwataPandaki visits him to bring about death.Magwayen, the soul ferry god, carries the souls of the Yligueynes to the abode of the dead calledSolad.[55] But when a bad person dies, Pandaki brings him to the place of punishment in the abode of the dead, where his soul will wait to move on to theOlogan or heaven. While the dead is undergoing punishment, his family could help him by asking the priests or priestesses to offer ceremonies and prayers so that he might go to the place of rest in heaven.[58]
The spiritual leaders were called theBabaylan. Most of theBabaylan were women who, for some reasons, the colonizers described as "lascivious" and astute. On certain ceremonial occasions, they put on elaborate apparel, which appear bizarre to Spaniards. They would wear yellow false hair, over which some kind of diadem adorn and, in their hands, they wielded straw fans. They were assisted by young apprentices who would carry some thin cane as for a wand.[59]
Notable among the rituals performed byBabaylan was the pig sacrifice. Sometimes chicken were also offered. The sacrificial victims were placed on well adorned altars, together with other commodities and with the most exquisite local wine calledPangasi. TheBabaylan would break into dance hovering around these offerings to the sound of drums and brass bells calledAgongs, with palm leaves and trumpets made of cane. The ritual is called by the Visayans"Pag-aanito".[60]
Spirits were referred to asumalagad (calledanito inLuzon).[61] These refer to ancestors, past leaders or heroes also transfigured within nature. Beside idols symbolizing the umalagad were food, drinks, clothing, precious valuables or even a sacrificial animal offered for protection of life or property. Such practice was a form ofancestor worship. Furthermore, these rituals surrounding the diwata and umalagad were mediated by thebabaylan who were highly revered in society as spiritual leaders. These intercessors were equivalent toshamans, and were predominantly women or were required to have strong female attributes such as hermaphrodites and homosexuals. Old men were also allowed to become one.[62] One notable example isDios Buhawi who ruled a politico-religious revolt inNegros Oriental at the beginning of thePhilippine Revolution.[28]
According to 2000 survey, 86.53% of the population ofWestern Visayas professedRoman Catholicism.Aglipayan (4.01%) andEvangelicals (1.48%) were the next largest groups, while 7.71% identified with other religious affiliations.[63]
The same survey showed that 92% of household populations inCentral Visayas were Catholics, followed by Aglipayans (2%) and Evangelicals (1%). The remaining 5% belonged to theUnited Church of Christ in the Philippines,Iglesia ni Cristo, various Protestant denominations or other religions.[1]
ForEastern Visayas, 93% of the total household population were Catholics, while 12% identified as "Aglipayan", and 1% as "Evangelical". The remaining 5% belonged to other Protestant denominations (including the Iglesia ni Cristo, theSeventh-day Adventist Church, and variousBaptist churches) or identified withIslam and other religions.[64]
TheTausūg people are excluded in these statistics because they do not self-identify as Visayans. The Tausug are overwhelmingyMuslim and are grouped together with otherMuslim ethnic groups of the Philippines as theMoro people.
Visayans are known in the Philippines for their festivities such as theAti-Atihan,Dinagyang,[65]Pintados-Kasadyaan,Sangyaw,Sinulog festivals. Most Visayan festivals have a strong association with Roman Catholicism despite apparent integration of ancient Hindu-Buddhist-Animist folklore particularly the tradition of dances and the idols in the image of theChild Jesus commonly named as the Santo Niño. The oldest Catholicreligious image in the islands still existing today is theSanto Niño de Cebú.
TheSandugo Festival ofTagbilaran,Bohol is a celebration of one of the most significant parts of pre-Philippine history. This festival revolves around the theme of the reenactment of the blood compact between the island's monarch,Datu Sikatuna, and theSpanish explorer,Miguel López de Legazpi, which is known amongFilipinos as theSandugo (lit. unified/one blood). The arrival of the tenBorneandatus as mentioned in thelegend ofMaragtas is celebrated inBinirayan Festival inAntique.[66]
TheMassKara Festival ofBacolod,Negros Occidental explores more on the distinct cultural identity of the city. Since Bacolod is tagged as theCity of Smiles due to its fun-loving and enduring people, the city government inaugurated the festival in 1980 after tragedy struck the region.[67][68]
Some of the earliest known works were documented by aSpanish Jesuit named Ignacio Francisco Alzina during theSpanish colonial Philippines. Among these literary pieces from ancientEastern Visayas werekandu,haya,ambahan,kanogon,bikal,balak,siday andawit which are predominantly inWaray. There were also narratives calledsusmaton andposong. It was also described that theater played a central role in performing poetry, rituals and dances.[69] TheWestern Visayans also shared nearly the same literary forms with the rest of the islands. Among their pre-Hispanic works were called thebangianay,hurobaton,paktakun,sugidanun andamba. These were all found to be inOld Kinaray-a. Some of the widely known and the only existing literature describing ancient Visayan society are as theHinilawod and theMaragtas which was in a combination ofKinaray-a andHiligaynon.[70][71] TheAginid: Bayok sa Atong Tawarik is an epic retelling a portion of ancient Cebu history where theChola dynasty minor prince Sri Lumay ofSumatra founded and ruled theRajahnate of Cebu.[72] It also has accounts ofRajah Humabon andLapu-Lapu.[73]
It was found byFilipino polymathJosé Rizal inAntonio de Morga'sSucesos delas islas Filipinas that one of the first documented poets in much ofpre-Philippines known toEuropeans was a Visayan namedKaryapa.[74] During the golden age ofPhilippine languages at the onset ofJapanese occupation, numerous Visayan names rose to literary prominence. Acclaimed modern Visayan writers in their respectivenative languages are Marcel Navarra, the father of modern Cebuano literature,Magdalena Jalandoni, Ramon Muzones,Iluminado Lucente, Francisco Alvardo, Eduardo Makabenta,Norberto Romuáldez,Antonio Abad,Augurio Abeto, Diosdado Alesna, Maragtas S. V. Amante,Epifanio Alfafara, Jose Yap,Leoncio P. Deriada, Conrado Norada,Alex Delos Santos,John Iremil Teodoro andPeter Solis Nery.
Don Ramon Roces of Roces Publishing, Inc. is credited for the promulgation of Visayan languages in publications throughHiligaynon andBisaya.[75]
Visayan films, particularly Cebuano-language ones, experienced a boom between the 1940s and the 1970s. In the mid 1940s alone, a total of 50 Visayan productions were completed, while nearly 80 movies were filmed in the following decade.[citation needed] This wave of success has been bolstered byGloria Sevilla, billed as the "Queen of Visayan Movies",[76] who won the prestigious Best Actress award from the 1969FAMAS for the filmBadlis sa Kinabuhi and the 1974Gimingaw Ako.[77]Caridad Sanchez, Lorna Mirasol,Chanda Romero,Pilar Pilapil andSuzette Ranillo are some of the industry's veterans who gained recognition from working on Visayan films.
The national film and television industries are also supported by actors who have strong Visayan roots such asJoel Torre,Jackie Lou Blanco,Edu Manzano,Manilyn Reynes, Dwight Gaston,Vina Morales, Sheryl Reyes, andCesar Montano, who starred in the 1999biographical filmRizal and multi-awarded 2004 moviePanaghoy sa Suba.[78] Younger actors and actress of Visayan origin or ancestry includeIsabel Oli,Kim Chiu,Enrique Gil,Shaina Magdayao,Carla Abellana,Erich Gonzales andMatteo Guidicelli.
Award-winning directorPeque Gallaga ofBacolod has garnered acclaim from his most successful movieOro, Plata, Mata which depictedNegros Island and itspeople duringWorld War II. Among his other works and contributions are classicShake, Rattle & Roll horror film series,Scorpio Nights andBatang X.
GMA Network's 2011period dramateleseryeAmaya as well as its 2013 seriesIndio, featured the politics and culture of ancient and colonial Visayan societies, respectively.
Traditional Visayan folk music were known to many such asDandansoy originally inHiligaynon and is now commonly sang in otherBisayan languages. Another, although originally written inTagalog, isWaray-Waray, which speaks of the common stereotypes and positive characteristics of theWaray people. Americanjazz singerEartha Kitt also had a rendition of the song in her live performances.[79] A very popular Filipino Christmas carolAng Pasko ay Sumapit translated byLevi Celerio to Tagalog was originally aCebuano song entitledKasadya Ning Taknaa popularized byRuben Tagalog.[80]
Contemporary Philippine music was highly influenced and molded through the contributions of many Visayan artists. Many of them are platinum recorderJose Mari Chan,Pilita Corrales, Dulce, Verni Varga,Susan Fuentes,Jaya andKuh Ledesma who enjoyed acclaim around the 1960s to the early 1990s. Newer singers areJed Madela,Sheryn Regis andSitti Navarro.
Yoyoy Villame, aBoholano, is dubbed as the Father of Filipinonovelty songs with hisButsekik as the most popular. Villame often collaborated with fellow singer,Max Surban.Joey Ayala,Grace Nono andBayang Barrios are some of the front-runners of a branching musical subgenre called Neotraditional which involvedtraditional Filipino instruments with modern rhythm and melody.
Rock emerged into dominance within the Philippine music scene in the 1980s. Among the bands from Visayas areUrbandub andJunior Kilat. Another subgenre also sprung a few years later calledBisRock which is a portmanteau ofBisaya androck.
Ethnic dances from the region are common in any traditional Filipino setting. The most well-known is thetinikling claimed to be ofLeyte origins.[81][82] Curacha or kuratsa (not to be confused with theZamboangueño dish) is a popular Waray dance. Its Cebuano counterparts are kuradang and la berde.[83] SomeHiligaynon dances include theharito,balitaw,liay,lalong kalong,imbong,inay-inay andbinanog.[84] There is alsoliki fromNegros Occidental.[85]
The only Boholano and the youngest to receive theNational Artist of the Philippines award forvisual arts isNapoleon Abueva. He is also tagged as the Father of Modern Philippine Sculpture. Among his works areKaganapan (1953), the Transfiguration (1979) and the 14 Stations of the Cross around theEDSA Shrine.[86] He is also responsible for the sculpture of theSandugo monument atTagbilaran City to give homage to his roots.
A renowned figure in architecture isLeandro Locsin ofSilay,Negros Occidental. He was proclaimed asNational Artist of the Philippines for architecture in 1990. Locsin worked on many of the buildings in many campuses of theUniversity of the Philippines System. He also designed the main building or theTanghalang Pambansa of theCultural Center of the Philippines and theAyala Tower One & Exchange Plaza housing thePhilippine Stock Exchange atMakati.
