Ananassa sativa(Schult. & Schult.f.) Lindl. ex Beer
Bromelia ananasL.
Bromelia ananasWilld.
Bromelia communisLam.
Bromelia comosaL.
Bromelia edulisSalisb. nom. illeg.
Bromelia mai-pouriPerrier
Bromelia pignaPerrier
Bromelia rubraSchult. & Schult.f.
Bromelia violaceaSchult. & Schult.f.
Bromelia viridis(Mill.) Schult. & Schult.f.
Distiacanthus communis(Lam.) Rojas Acosta
Thepineapple[2][3] (Ananas comosus) is atropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the familyBromeliaceae.[4]
The pineapple is indigenous toSouth America, where it has been cultivated for many centuries. The introduction of the pineapple plant toEurope in the17th century made it a significant cultural icon of luxury. Since the 1820s, pineapple has been commercially grown in greenhouses and many tropical plantations.
Pineapples grow as a small shrub; the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant fuse to form amultiple fruit. The plant normally propagates from theoffset produced at the top of the fruit[2][5] or from a side shoot, and typically matures within a year.[5][6]
The pineapple is aherbaceousperennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) tall on average, although sometimes it can be taller. The plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, waxy leaves. When creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruitedcultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the individual fruits of the flowers join together to create amultiple fruit. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots (called 'suckers' by commercial growers) are produced in the leaf axils of the main stem. These suckers may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant.[5] Commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves that are 30 to 100 cm (1 to3+1⁄2 ft) long, surrounding a thickstem; the leaves have sharp spines along the margins. In the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into a spike-likeinflorescence up to 15 cm (6 in) long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers, each subtended by a bract.
In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily byhummingbirds.[2][7] Certain wild pineapples areforaged and pollinated at night bybats.[8] Under cultivation, because seed development diminishes fruit quality, pollination is performed by hand, and seeds are retained only forbreeding.[2] InHawaii, where pineapples were cultivated andcanned industrially throughout the 20th century,[9] importation of hummingbirds was prohibited.[10]
The ovaries develop intoberries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is usually arranged in two interlockinghelices, often with 8 in one direction and 13 in the other, each being aFibonacci number.[11]
The pineapple carries outCAM photosynthesis,[12] fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acidmalate, then releasing it during the day aiding photosynthesis.
Taxonomy
The pineapple comprises five botanical varieties, formerly regarded as separate species.[13] The genomes of three varieties, including the wild progenitor varietybracteatus, have been sequenced.[14]
Brazil and Paraguay; naturalized in parts of Asia, Africa, Australia, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, northern South America, and various islands in the Pacific
Colombia, Venezuela, northern Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana
History
Etymology
The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French ofAndré Thevet'sThe New Found World, or Antarctike where he refers to aHoyriri, a fruit cultivated and eaten by theTupinambá people, living near modernRio de Janeiro, and now believed to be a pineapple.[15] Later in the same English translation, he describes the same fruit as a "Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple", where he used anotherTupi wordnanas, meaning 'excellent fruit'.[16] This usage was adopted by many European languages and led to the plant's scientificbinomialAnanas comosus, wherecomosus 'tufted' refers to the stem of the plant. Purchas, writing in English in 1613, referred to the fruit asAnanas, but theOxford English Dictionary's first record of the wordpineapple itself by an English writer is by Mandeville in 1714.[17]
Pineapple fruit, whole and in longitudinal section
Precolonial cultivation
The wild plant originates from theParaná–Paraguay River drainages between southernBrazil andParaguay.[2][18][19][20] Little is known about its domestication, but it spread as a crop throughout South America. Archaeological evidence of use is found as far back as 1200–800 BC (3200–2800 BP) in Peru[21] and 200 BC – 700 AD (2200–1300 BP) in Mexico,[22] where it was cultivated by theMayas and theAztecs.[23] By the late 1400s, cropped pineapple was widely distributed and astaple food of Native Americans. The first European to encounter the pineapple wasChristopher Columbus, inGuadeloupe on 4 November 1493.[24][25] The Portuguese took the fruit from Brazil and introduced it intoIndia by 1550.[26] The 'Red Spanish [es]' cultivar was also introduced by the Spanish from Latin America to thePhilippines, and it was grown to producepiña fibers that would then be used to produce textiles from at least the 17th century.[27]
Columbus brought the plant back to Spain and called itpiña de Indes, meaning "pine of the Indians". The pineapple was documented in Peter Martyr'sDecades of the New World (1516) andAntonio Pigafetta'sRelazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524–1525), and the first known illustration was inOviedo'sHistoria General de Las Indias (1535).[28]
While the pineapple fascinated Europeans as a fruit of colonialism,[29] it was not successfully cultivated in Europe untilPieter de la Court (1664–1739) developedgreenhouse horticulture near Leiden.[30][25] Pineapple plants were distributed from the Netherlands to English gardeners in 1719 and French ones in 1730.[25] In England, the first pineapple was grown atDorney Court,Dorney in Buckinghamshire, and a huge "pineapple stove" to heat the plants was built at theChelsea Physic Garden in 1723.[31][32] In France, KingLouis XV was presented with a pineapple that had been grown atVersailles in 1733. In Russia,Peter the Great imported de la Court's method intoSt. Petersburg in the 1720s; in 1730, twenty pineapple saplings were transported from there to a greenhouse atEmpress Anna's new Moscow palace.[33][34]
1772 illustration of anAnanas comosus pineapple which was given the early scientific name ofCardus brasilianus folius aloes by Banhius in 1623[35]
Because of the expense of direct import and the enormous cost in equipment and labour required to grow them in a temperate climate, in greenhouses called "pineries",pineapple became a symbol of wealth. They were initially used mainly for display at dinner parties, rather than being eaten, and were used again and again until they began to rot.[36] In the second half of the 18th century, the production of the fruit on British estates became the subject of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats.[36]John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, built a hothouse on his estate surmounted by a huge stonecupola 14 metres tall in the shape of the fruit; it is known as theDunmore Pineapple.[37] In architecture, pineapple figures became decorative elements symbolizing hospitality.[38][39][40]
Since the 19th century: mass commercialization
Many different varieties, mostly from the Antilles, were tried for European glasshouse cultivation. The most significant cultivar was "Smooth Cayenne", first imported to France in 1820, then subsequently re-exported to theUnited Kingdom in 1835, and then from UK, the cultivation spread viaHawaii to Australia and Africa. The "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar (and sub-selections or clones of the "Smooth Cayenne") make up for the majority of world pineapple production today.[25] Jams and sweets based on pineapple were imported to Europe from the West Indies, Brazil, and Mexico from an early date. By the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported direct from the West Indies in large enough quantities to reduce European prices.[25] Later pineapple production was dominated by the Azores for Europe, and Florida and the Caribbean for North America, because of the short trade routes.
The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century[41] where it is known as thehala kahiki ("foreignhala"),[42][43] but the first commercial plantation was established in 1886. The most famous investor wasJames Dole, who moved to Hawaii in 1899[44] and started a 24-hectare (60-acre) pineapple plantation in 1900 which would grow into theDole Food Company.[45] Dole andDel Monte began growing pineapples on the island ofOahu in 1901 and 1917, respectively, and theMaui Pineapple Company began cultivation onMaui in 1909.[46] James Dole began the commercial processing of pineapple, and Dole employee Henry Ginaca invented an automatic peeling and coring machine in 1911.[25]
James Drummond Dole (1877–1958) was the early promoter of the pineapple industry in Hawaii. He founded the company now known as the Dole Food Company.Del Monte pineapple fields inBukidnon,Philippines
Hawaiian production started to decline from the 1970s because of competition and the shift to refrigerated sea transport. Dole ceased its cannery operations inHonolulu in 1991, and in 2008, Del Monte terminated its pineapple-growing operations in Hawaii.[47] In 2009, the Maui Pineapple Company reduced its operations to supply pineapples only locally on Maui,[48] and by 2013, only theDole Plantation on Oahu grew pineapples in a volume of about 0.1 percent of the world's production.[47] Despite this decline, the pineapple is sometimes used as a symbol of Hawaii.[49][50] Further, foods with pineapple in them are sometimes known as "Hawaiian" for this reason alone.
In the Philippines, "Smooth Cayenne" was introduced in the early 1900s by theUS Bureau of Agriculture during theAmerican colonial period. Dole and Del Monte established plantations in the island ofMindanao in the 1920s; in the provinces ofCotabato andBukidnon, respectively.[27][51] Large scale canning had started in Southeast Asia, including in the Philippines, from 1920. This trade was severely damaged byWorld War II, and Hawaii dominated the international trade until the 1960s.
The Philippines remain one of the top exporters of pineapples in the world. The Del Monte plantations are now locally managed, after Del Monte Pacific Ltd., a Filipino company, completed the purchase of Del Monte Foods in 2014.[52]
Raw pineapple pulp is 86% water, 13%carbohydrates, 0.5%protein, and contains negligiblefat (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw pineapple supplies 209 kilojoules (50 kilocalories) offood energy, and is a rich source ofmanganese (40%Daily Value, DV) andvitamin C (53% DV), but otherwise contains nomicronutrients in significant amounts (table).
A hollowed-out pineapple with its core left intact, ready for filling,e.g., with other fruits.
Present in all parts of the pineapple plant,[57]bromelain is a mixture ofproteolyticenzymes. It is present in stem, fruit, crown, core, leaves of pineapple itself.[58] Bromelain is under preliminary research for treatment of a variety of clinical disorders, but has not been adequately defined for its effects in the human body.[59] Bromelain may be unsafe for some users, such as inpregnancy,allergies, oranticoagulation therapy.[59]
Having sufficient bromelain content, raw pineapple juice may be useful as a meatmarinade andtenderizer.[60] Although pineapple enzymes can interfere with the preparation of some foods or manufactured products, such asgelatin-based desserts orgelcapsules,[61] their proteolytic activity responsible for such properties may be degraded during cooking andcanning. The quantity of bromelain in a typical serving of pineapple fruit is probably not significant, but specificextraction can yield sufficient quantities fordomestic and industrial processing.[60][62]
Varieties
Cultivars
Manycultivars are known.[2] The leaves of the commonly grown "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar and its various clones are smooth,[63] and it is the most commonly grown worldwide. Many cultivars have become distributed from its origins inParaguay and the southern part ofBrazil, and later improved stocks were introduced into the Americas, the Azores, Africa, India, Malaysia and Australia.[2] Varieties include:[citation needed]
"Hilo" is a compact, 1.0- to 1.5-kg (2– to 3-lb) Hawaiian variant of smooth cayenne; the fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers, but no slips.
"Kona sugarloaf", at 2.5 to 3.0 kg (5–6 lb), has white flesh with no woodiness in the center, is cylindrical in shape, and has a high sugar content but no acid; it has an unusually sweet fruit.
"Natal queen", at 1.0 to 1.5 kg (2 to 3 lb), has golden yellow flesh, crisp texture, and delicate mild flavor; well-adapted to fresh consumption, it keeps well after ripening. It has spiny leaves and is grown in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa.
"Pernambuco" ("eleuthera") weighs 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), and has pale yellow to white flesh. It is sweet, melting in texture, and excellent for eating fresh; it is poorly adapted for shipping, has spiny leaves, and is grown in Latin America.
"Red Spanish", at 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), has pale yellow flesh with a pleasant aroma, is squarish in shape, and well-adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets; it has spiny leaves and is grown in Latin America and the Philippines. It was the original pineapple cultivar in the Philippines grown for their leaf fibers (piña) in the traditional Philippine textile industry.[27][51]
"Smooth cayenne", a 2.5- to 3.0-kg (5- to 6-lb), pale yellow– to yellow-fleshed, cylindrical fruit with high sugar and acid content, is well-adapted to canning and processing; its leaves are without spines. It is an ancient cultivar developed byAmerind peoples.[64] In some parts of Asia, this cultivar is known asSarawak, after an area of Malaysia in which it is grown.[65] It is one of the ancestors of cultivars "73-50" (also called "MD-1" and "CO-2") and "73–114" (also called "MD-2").[64] Smooth cayenne was previously the variety produced in Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U.S. grocery stores, but was replaced over the course of the mid-1990s and 2000s by MD-2.[64] The success of Del Monte's MD-2 caused Dole toobtain & grow its own MD-2 pineapples, leading toDel Monte Fresh Produce Co. v. Dole Food Co..
SomeAnanas species are grown asornamentals for color, novel fruit size, and otheraesthetic qualities.
In the US, in 1986, the Pineapple Research Institute was dissolved and its assets divided between Del Monte andMaui Land and Pineapple. Del Monte took cultivar '73–114', dubbed 'MD-2', to its plantations in Costa Rica, found it to be well-suited to growing there, and launched it publicly in 1996 as 'Gold Extra Sweet', while Del Monte also began marketing '73–50', dubbed 'CO-2', as 'Del Monte Gold'.[64] The Maui Pineapple Company began growing variety 73-50 in 1988 and named it Maui Gold.[66] The successor company to MPC, the Hali'imaile Pineapple Company continues to grow Maui Gold on the slopes ofHaleakala.
The flesh and juice of the pineapple are used in cuisines around the world. In many tropical countries, pineapple is prepared and sold on roadsides as a snack. It is sold whole or in halves with a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with acherry in the middle are a common garnish on hams in the West. Chunks of pineapple are used in desserts such as fruit salad, as well as in some savory dishes, including theHawaiian pizza, or as a grilled ring on ahamburger. Traditional dishes that use pineapple includehamonado,afritada,kaeng som pla, andHawaiian haystack. Crushed pineapple is used in yogurt, jam, sweets, and ice cream. The juice of the pineapple is served as a beverage, and it is also the main ingredient incocktails such as thepiña colada and in the drinktepache.
In thePhilippines, a traditional jelly-like dessert callednata de piña has also been produced since the 18th century. It is made by fermenting pineapple juice with the bacteriaKomagataeibacter xylinus.[68]
Pineapple vinegar is an ingredient found in bothHonduran andFilipino cuisine, where it is produced locally.[69] InMexico, it is usually made with peels from the whole fruit, rather than the juice; however, inTaiwanese cuisine, it is often produced by blending pineapple juice with grain vinegar.[70][71]
TheEuropean Union consumed 50% of the global total for pineapple juice in 2012–2016. TheNetherlands was the largest importer of pineapple juice inEurope.Thailand,Costa Rica and theNetherlands are the major suppliers to the European Union market in 2012–2016.[72] Countries consuming the most pineapple juice in 2017 wereThailand,Indonesia and thePhilippines, having combined consumption of 47% of the world total. The consumption of pineapple juice inChina andIndia is low compared to their populations.[73]
The 'Red Spanish' cultivar of pineapples were once extensively cultivated in thePhilippines. The long leaves of the cultivar were the source of traditionalpiña fibers, an adaptation of the native weaving traditions with fibers extracted fromabacá. These were woven into lustrous lace-likenipis fabrics usually decorated with intricate floral embroidery known ascalado andsombrado. The fabric was a luxury export from the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period and gained favor among European aristocracy in the 18th and 19th centuries. Domestically, they were used to make the traditionalbarong tagalog,baro't saya, andtraje de mestiza clothing of the Filipino upper class, as well as women'skerchiefs (pañuelo). They were favored for their light and breezy quality, which was ideal in the hot tropical climate of the islands. The industry was destroyed in theSecond World War and is only starting to be revived.[27][51][74]
1895 painting of a Filipina in traditionaltraje de mestiza dress
The varietyA. comosus 'Variegatus' is occasionally grown as a houseplant. It needs direct sunlight and thrives at temperatures of 18 to 24 °C (64 to 75 °F), with a minimum winter temperature of 16 °C (61 °F). It should be kept humid, but the soil should be allowed to dry out between waterings. It has almost no resting period but should be repotted each spring until the container reaches 20 centimeters (8 in).[75]
Cultivation
In commercial farming, flowering can be induced artificially, and the early harvesting of the main fruit can encourage the development of a second crop of smaller fruits. Once removed during cleaning, the top of the pineapple can be planted in soil and a new plant will grow. Slips and suckers are planted commercially.[2]
Storage and transport
Some buyers prefer green fruit, others ripened or off-green. A plant growth regulator,Ethephon, is typically sprayed onto the fruit one week before harvest, developingethylene, which turns the fruit golden yellow. After cleaning and slicing, a pineapple is typically canned in sugar syrup with added preservative.[2] A pineapple never becomes any riper than it was when harvested since it is anon-climacteric fruit.[76][77]
Ethical and environmental concerns
Like mostmodern fruit production, pineapple plantations are highly industrialized operations. In Costa Rica particularly, the pineapple industry uses large amounts of insecticides to protect the crop, which have caused health problems in many workers. These workers often receive little compensation, and are mostly poor migrants, oftenNicaraguan. Workers' wages also decrease every time prices are lowered overseas. In 2016, the government declared that it would be trying to improve the situation, with the help of various other groups.[78]
Historically, tropical fruit agriculture, such as for pineapples, has been concentrated in so-called "banana republics".[79][80]
Illegal drug trade
Export pineapples from Costa Rica to Europe are often used as a cover fornarcotrafficking, and containers are impounded routinely in both locations.[81]
Expansion into protected areas
In Costa Rica, pineapple cultivation has expanded into theMaquenque,Corredor Fronterizo,Barra del Colorado andCaño Negro wildlife refuges, all located in the north of the country. As those are protected areas and not national parks, limited and restricted sustainable activities are allowed, however pineapple plantations are industrial operations and many of these do not have the proper license to operate in the protected areas, or were started before either the designation of the area, recent regulations or the creation of the environmental regulatory agency (Setena) in 1996. The agency has registers for around 358.5 ha (1.384 sq mi) of pineapple plantations operating within protected areas, but satellite imagery from 2018 reports around 1,659 ha (6.41 sq mi).[82]
Pineapples are subject to a variety of diseases, the most serious of which is wilt disease vectored bymealybugs[83] typically found on the surface of pineapples, but possibly in the closed blossom cups.[2] Other diseases include citruspink disease, bacterial heart rot,anthracnose,[83] fungal heart rot, root rot, black rot, butt rot, fruitlet core rot, and yellow spot virus.[84] Pineapple pink disease (not citrus pink disease) is characterized by the fruit developing a brownish to black discoloration when heated during the canning process. The causal agents of pink disease are the bacteriaAcetobacter aceti,Gluconobacter oxydans,Pantoea citrea[85][86] andTatumella ptyseos.[87][88]
Some pests that commonly affect pineapple plants are scales,thrips, mites, mealybugs, ants, andsymphylids.[84]
Heart-rot is the most serious disease affecting pineapple plants. The disease is caused byPhytophthora cinnamomi andP. parasitica, fungi that often affect pineapples grown in wet conditions. Since it is difficult to treat, it is advisable to guard against infection by planting resistant cultivars where these are available; allsuckers that are required for propagation should be dipped in a fungicide, since the fungus enters through the wounds.[89]
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