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Phytochemistry

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Study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants

For the journal, seePhytochemistry (journal).

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This articleneeds morereliable medical references forverification or relies too heavily onprimary sources. Please review the contents of the article andadd the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged andremoved.Find sources: "Phytochemistry" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(November 2020)

Phytochemistry is the study ofphytochemicals, which are chemicals derived fromplants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number ofsecondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves againstinsect attacks andplant diseases. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes:alkaloids,phenylpropanoids,polyketides, andterpenoids.

Phytochemistry can be considered a subfield ofbotany orchemistry. Activities can be led inbotanical gardens or in the wild with the aid ofethnobotany. Phytochemical studies directed toward human (i.e. drug discovery) use may fall under the discipline ofpharmacognosy, whereas phytochemical studies focused on the ecological functions and evolution of phytochemicals likely fall under the discipline ofchemical ecology. Phytochemistry also has relevance to the field ofplant physiology.

Techniques

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Techniques commonly used in the field of phytochemistry areextraction, isolation, andstructural elucidation (MS,1D and 2D NMR) ofnatural products, as well as variouschromatography techniques (MPLC,HPLC, and LC-MS).

Phytochemicals

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Many plants produce chemical compoundsfor defence against herbivores. The major classes of pharmacologically activephytochemicals are described below, with examples of medicinal plants that contain them.^[1] Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds containing phytochemicals, such asnettle,dandelion andchickweed.^[2]^[3]

Many phytochemicals, includingcurcumin,epigallocatechin gallate,genistein, andresveratrol arepan-assay interference compounds and are not useful indrug discovery.^[4]^[5]

Alkaloids

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Further information:Alkaloids

Alkaloids are bitter-tasting chemicals, widespread in nature, and often toxic. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes includeatropine,scopolamine, andhyoscyamine (all fromnightshade),^[6] the traditional medicineberberine (from plants such asBerberis andMahonia),caffeine (Coffea),cocaine (Coca),ephedrine (Ephedra),morphine (opium poppy),nicotine (tobacco),reserpine (Rauvolfia serpentina),quinidine andquinine (Cinchona),vincamine (Vinca minor), andvincristine (Catharanthus roseus).^[7]

The opium poppyPapaver somniferum is the source of thealkaloids morphine andcodeine.
The alkaloidnicotine fromtobacco binds directly to the body'sNicotinic acetylcholine receptors, accounting for its pharmacological effects.^[8]
Deadly nightshade,Atropa belladonna, yieldstropane alkaloids includingatropine,scopolamine andhyoscyamine.^[6]
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) a powerfulpsychedelic compound which is present in several plant species found across the globe, commonly found inMimosa andAcacia species but has also been discovered in grasses such asPhilaris Aquatica.

Glycosides

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Further information:Glycosides

Anthraquinone glycosides are found insenna,^[9]rhubarb, andAloe.^[10]

Thecardiac glycosides are phytochemicals from plants includingfoxglove andlily of the valley. They includedigoxin anddigitoxin which act asdiuretics.^[11]

Senna alexandrina, containinganthraquinone glycosides, has been used as alaxative for millennia.^[9]
Thefoxglove,Digitalis purpurea, containsdigoxin, acardiac glycoside. The plant was used to treat heart conditions long before the glycoside was identified.^[11]^[12]
Digoxin is used to treatatrial fibrillation,atrial flutter and sometimesheart failure.^[11]

Polyphenols

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Further information:Polyphenol

Polyphenols of several classes are widespread in plants, includinganthocyanins,phytoestrogens, andtannins.^[13] Polyphenols are secondary metabolites produced by almost every part of plants, including fruits, flowers, leaves and bark.^[13]

Angelica, containingphytoestrogens
Polyphenols includephytoestrogens (top and middle)
Anthocyanins are a class of polyphenol that contributes to the color of many plants.
Tannic acids are one example of many complex polyphenolic structures produced by plants.

Terpenes

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Further information:Terpenes

Terpenes andterpenoids of many kinds are found inresinous plants such as theconifers. They are aromatic and serve to repel herbivores. Their scent makes them useful inessential oils, whether forperfumes such asrose andlavender, or foraromatherapy.^[14]^[15] Some have had medicinal uses:thymol is an antiseptic and was once used as avermifuge (anti-worm medicine).^[16]^[17]

Theessential oil ofcommon thyme (Thymus vulgaris), contains themonoterpene thymol, anantiseptic andantifungal.^[16]
Thymol is one of manyterpenes found in plants.^[16]
Terpenes are polymer ofisoprene

Genetics

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Contrary to bacteria and fungi, most plantmetabolic pathways are not grouped intobiosynthetic gene clusters, but instead are scattered as individual genes. Some exceptions have been discovered:steroidal glycoalkaloids inSolanum,polyketides inPooideae, benzoxazinoids inZea mays,triterpenes inAvena sativa,Cucurbitaceae,Arabidopsis, and momilactone diterpenes inOryza sativa.^[18]

References

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^"Angiosperms: Division Magnoliophyta: General Features".Encyclopædia Britannica (volume 13, 15th edition). 1993. p. 609.
^Meskin, Mark S. (2002).Phytochemicals in Nutrition and Health. CRC Press. p. 123.ISBN 978-1-58716-083-7.
^Springbob, Karen; Kutchan, Toni M. (2009)."Introduction to the different classes of natural products". In Lanzotti, Virginia (ed.).Plant-Derived Natural Products: Synthesis, Function, and Application. Springer. p. 3.ISBN 978-0-387-85497-7.
^Baell, Jonathan; Walters, Michael A. (24 September 2014)."Chemistry: Chemical con artists foil drug discovery".Nature.513 (7519):481–483.Bibcode:2014Natur.513..481B.doi:10.1038/513481a.PMID 25254460.
^Dahlin JL, Walters MA (July 2014)."The essential roles of chemistry in high-throughput screening triage".Future Medicinal Chemistry.6 (11):1265–90.doi:10.4155/fmc.14.60.PMC 4465542.PMID 25163000.
^^a ^b"Atropa Belladonna"(PDF). The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. 1998. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved26 February 2017.
^Gremigni, P.; et al. (2003). "The interaction of phosphorus and potassium with seed alkaloid concentrations, yield and mineral content in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)".Plant and Soil.253 (2). Heidelberg: Springer:413–427.Bibcode:2003PlSoi.253..413G.doi:10.1023/A:1024828131581.JSTOR 24121197.S2CID 25434984.
^"Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Introduction".IUPHAR Database. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Archived fromthe original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved26 February 2017.
^^a ^bHietala, P.; Marvola, M.; Parviainen, T.; Lainonen, H. (August 1987). "Laxative potency and acute toxicity of some anthraquinone derivatives, senna extracts and fractions of senna extracts".Pharmacology & Toxicology.61 (2):153–6.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1987.tb01794.x.PMID 3671329.
^John T. Arnason; Rachel Mata; John T. Romeo (2013-11-11).Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plants. Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN 9781489917782.
^^a ^b ^c"Active Plant Ingredients Used for Medicinal Purposes". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved18 February 2017.
^"Digitalis purpurea. Cardiac Glycoside". Texas A&M University. Archived fromthe original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved26 February 2017.The man credited with the introduction of digitalis into the practice of medicine wasWilliam Withering.
^^a ^b"Flavonoids". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. 1 February 2016. Retrieved11 October 2023.
^Tchen, T. T. (1965). "Reviewed Work:The Biosynthesis of Steroids, Terpenes & Acetogenins".American Scientist.53 (4). Research Triangle Park, NC: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society:499A–500A.JSTOR 27836252.
^Singsaas, Eric L. (2000)."Terpenes and the Thermotolerance of Photosynthesis".New Phytologist.146 (1). New York: Wiley:1–2.Bibcode:2000NewPh.146....1S.doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00626.x.JSTOR 2588737.
^^a ^b ^c"Thymol (CID=6989)". NIH. Retrieved26 February 2017.THYMOL is a phenol obtained from thyme oil or other volatile oils used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutical preparations, and as an antiseptic (antibacterial or antifungal) agent. It was formerly used as a vermifuge.
^Roy, Kuhu (2015-09-01)."Tinospora cordifolia stem supplementation in diabetic dyslipidemia: an open labelled randomized controlled trial".Functional Foods in Health and Disease.5 (8):265–274.doi:10.31989/ffhd.v5i8.208.ISSN 2160-3855.
^Lacchini, Elia; Goossens, Alain (2020-10-06). "Combinatorial Control of Plant Specialized Metabolism: Mechanisms, Functions, and Consequences".Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology.36 (1).Annual Reviews:291–313.doi:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-011620-031429.ISSN 1081-0706.PMID 32559387.S2CID 219947907.

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