Inancient Greek philosophy,phronesis (Ancient Greek:φρόνησις,romanized: phrónēsis) refers to the type ofwisdom orintelligence concerned with practical action. It implies good judgment and excellence ofcharacter and habits. InAristotelian ethics, the concept is distinguished from other words for wisdom and intellectualvirtues (such asepisteme andsophia) because of its practical character.
In some ofSocrates' dialogues, he proposes thatphronēsis is a necessary condition for all virtue,[1] and that to be good is to be an intelligent or reasonable person with intelligent and reasonable thoughts.[2] In Plato'sMeno, Socrates writes thatphronēsis is the most important attribute to learn, although it cannot be taught and is instead gained through the understanding of one's own self.[3]
In Aristotle's work,phronesis is the intellectual virtue that helps turn one's moral instincts into practical action.[4][5] He writes that moral virtues help any person to achieve the end, and thatphronesis is what it takes to discover the means to gain that end.[4] Without moral virtues,phronesis degenerates into an inability to make practical actions in regards to genuinegoods for man.[6]
In the sixth book ofAristotle'sNicomachean Ethics, he distinguished the concepts ofsophia (wisdom) andphronesis, and described the relationship between them and other intellectual virtues.[4]: VI He writes thatSophia is a combination ofnous, the ability to discern reality, andepistēmē, things that "could not be otherwise".[7]He then writes thatPhronesis involves not only the ability to decide how to reach a certain end, but the ability to reflect upon and determine "good ends" as well.[4]: VI1140a,1141b,1142b
Aristotle also writes that althoughsophia is higher and more serious thanphronesis, the pursuit of wisdom and happiness requires both, asphronesis facilitatessophia.[4]: VI.81142 According to Aristotle's theory ofrhetoric,phronesis is one of the three types of appeals to character (ethos).[8]
Aristotle claims that gaining phronesis requires gaining experience, as he writes:
...although the young may be experts ingeometry andmathematics and similar branches of knowledge [sophoi], we do not consider that a young man can have Prudence [phronimos]. The reason is that Prudence [phronesis] includes a knowledge of particular facts, and this is derived from experience, which a young man does not possess; for experience is the fruit of years.[9]
According to philosophers Kristjánsson, Fowers, Darnell and Pollard,phronesis means making decisions in regards to moral events or circumstances. This four-component philosophical account became known as theAristotelian Phronesis Model, orAPM.[10] There is recent[anachronism] work to return the virtue of practical judgement to overcome disagreements and conflicts in the form of Aristotle'sphronesis.[11]
InAlasdair MacIntyre's bookAfter Virtue, he called for a phroneticsocial science. He writes that for every prediction made bysocial scientific theory there are usuallycounter-examples, meaning that theunpredictability of human beings and human life requires focus on practical experiences.
In psychologistHeiner Rindermann's bookCognitive Capitalism, he uses the termphronesis to describe a rational approach to thinking and acting, "a circumspect and thoughtful way of life in a rational manner".[12]
Critiques of theAPM's empirical limitations led to McLoughlin, Thoma, and Kristjánsson developing theneo-Aristotelian Phronesis Model (neo-APM),[13] which refines the construct using contemporary psychometric techniques. This updated model empirically identified ten distinct components and employed network analysis to highlight the interconnectedness and centrality of key elements, such as aspired moral identity and moral deliberation. The neo-APM thus provides a more nuanced and empirically valid framework for understanding practical wisdom in psychological and educational contexts.
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