A photodetector salvaged from aCD-ROM drive. The photodetector contains threephotodiodes, visible in the photo (in center).
Photodetectors, also calledphotosensors, are devices that detect light or other forms ofelectromagnetic radiation and convert it into an electrical signal. They are essential in a wide range of applications, from digital imaging and optical communication to scientific research and industrial automation. Photodetectors can be classified by their mechanism of detection, such as thephotoelectric effect, photochemical reactions, or thermal effects, or by performance metrics like spectral response. Common types includephotodiodes,phototransistors, andphotomultiplier tubes, each suited to specific uses.Solar cells, which convert light into electricity, are also a type of photodetector. This article explores the principles behind photodetectors, their various types, applications, and recent advancements in the field.
The development of photodetectors began with the discovery of thephotoelectric effect byHeinrich Hertz in 1887, later explained byAlbert Einstein in 1905.[1] Early photodetectors, such as selenium cells invented in the late 19th century, were used in light meters and telegraph systems.[2] The 1930s saw the invention ofphotomultiplier tubes, enabling the detection of faint light signals, which revolutionized fields like nuclear physics and astronomy. The mid-20th century brought semiconductor-based photodetectors, such asphotodiodes andphototransistors, which transformed industries like telecommunications and computing.[3] Today, advancements continue with high-speed detectors and quantum technologies.
Photoconductive effect: These detectors work by changing their electrical conductivity when exposed to light. The incident light generates electron-hole pairs in the material, altering its conductivity. Photoconductive detectors are typically made of semiconductors.[7]
Photoemission or photoelectric effect: Photons cause electrons to transition from theconduction band of a material to free electrons in a vacuum or gas.
Thermal: Photons cause electrons to transition to mid-gap states then decay back to lower bands, inducingphonon generation and thus heat.
Polarization: Photons induce changes in polarization states of suitable materials, which may lead to change inindex of refraction or other polarization effects.
Photochemical: Photons induce a chemical change in a material.
Weak interaction effects: photons induce secondary effects such as in photon drag[8][9] detectors or gas pressure changes inGolay cells.
Photodetectors may be used in different configurations. Single sensors may detect overall light levels. A 1-D array of photodetectors, as in aspectrophotometer or aLine scanner, may be used to measure the distribution of light along a line. A 2-D array of photodetectors may be used as animage sensor to form images from the pattern of light before it.
A photodetector or array is typically covered by an illumination window, sometimes having ananti-reflective coating.
Based on device structure, photodetectors can be classified into the following categories:
MSM Photodetector: A metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetector consists of a semiconductor layer sandwiched between two metal electrodes. The metal electrodes are interdigitated, forming a series of alternating fingers or grids. The semiconductor layer is typically made of materials such assilicon (Si),gallium arsenide (GaAs),indium phosphide (InP) orantimony selenide (Sb2Se3).[7] Various methods are employed together to improve its characteristics, such as manipulating the vertical structure, etching, changing the substrate, and utilizing plasmonics.[10] The best achievable efficiency is shown by Antimony Selenide photodetectors.
Photodiodes: Photodiodes are the most common type of photodetectors. They are semiconductor devices with a PN junction. Incident light generates electron-hole pairs in the depletion region of the junction, producing a photocurrent. Photodiodes can be further categorized into: a. PIN Photodiodes: These photodiodes have an additional intrinsic (I) region between the P and N regions, which extends the depletion region and improves the device's performance. b. Schottky Photodiodes: In Schottky photodiodes, a metal-semiconductor junction is used instead of a PN junction. They offer high-speed response and are commonly used in high-frequency applications.
Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs): APDs are specialized photodiodes that incorporate avalanche multiplication. They have a high electric field region near the PN junction, which causes impact ionization and produces additional electron-hole pairs. This internal amplification improves the detection sensitivity. APDs are widely used in applications requiring high sensitivity, such as low-light imaging and long-distance optical communication.[11]
Phototransistors: Phototransistors are transistors with a light-sensitive base region. Incident light causes a change in the base current, which controls the transistor's collector current. Phototransistors offer amplification and can be used in applications that require both detection and signal amplification.
Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs): CCDs are imaging sensors composed of an array of tiny capacitors. Incident light generates charge in the capacitors, which is sequentially read and processed to form an image. CCDs are commonly used in digital cameras and scientific imaging applications.
CMOS Image Sensors (CIS): CMOS image sensors are based on complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. They integrate photodetectors and signal processing circuitry on a single chip. CMOS image sensors have gained popularity due to their low power consumption, high integration, and compatibility with standard CMOS fabrication processes.
Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs): PMTs are vacuum tube-based photodetectors. They consist of a photocathode that emits electrons when illuminated, followed by a series of dynodes that multiply the electron current through secondary emission. PMTs offer high sensitivity and are used in applications that require low-light detection, such as particle physics experiments and scintillation detectors.
These are some of the common photodetectors based on device structure. Each type has its own characteristics, advantages, and applications in various fields, including imaging, communication, sensing, and scientific research.
Responsivity: The output current divided by total light power falling upon the photodetector.
Noise-equivalent power: The amount of light power needed to generate a signal comparable in size to thenoise of the device.
Detectivity: The square root of the detector area divided by the noise equivalent power.
Gain: The output current of a photodetector divided by the current directly produced by the photons incident on the detectors, i.e., the built-incurrent gain.
Dark current: The current flowing through a photodetector even in the absence of light.
Response time: The time needed for a photodetector to go from 10% to 90% of final output.
Noise spectrum: The intrinsic noise voltage or current as a function of frequency. This can be represented in the form of anoise spectral density.
Nonlinearity: The RF-output is limited by the nonlinearity of the photodetector[12]
Spectral response: The response of a photodetector as a function of photon frequency.
Gaseous ionization detectors are used in experimentalparticle physics to detect photons and particles with sufficient energy toionize gas atoms or molecules. Electrons and ions generated by ionization cause a current flow which can be measured.
Microchannel plate detectors use a porous glass substrate as a mechanism for multiplying electrons. They can be used in combination with a photocathode like the photomultiplier described above, with the porous glass substrate acting as adynode stage
Cadmium zinc telluride radiation detectors can operate in direct-conversion (or photoconductive) mode at room temperature, unlike some other materials (particularly germanium) which require liquid nitrogen cooling. Their relative advantages include high sensitivity for x-rays and gamma-rays, due to the high atomic numbers of Cd and Te, and better energy resolution than scintillator detectors.
HgCdTe infrared detectors. Detection occurs when an infrared photon of sufficient energy kicks an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. Such an electron is collected by a suitable external readout integrated circuits (ROIC) and transformed into an electric signal.
Photoresistors orLight Dependent Resistors (LDR) which changeresistance according tolight intensity. Normally the resistance of LDRs decreases with increasing intensity of light falling on it.[13]
Bolometers measure the power of incident electromagnetic radiation via the heating of a material with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. Amicrobolometer is a specific type of bolometer used as a detector in athermal camera.
Pyroelectric detectors detect photons through the heat they generate and the subsequent voltage generated in pyroelectric materials.
Thermopiles detect electromagnetic radiation through heat, then generating a voltage inthermocouples.
Golay cells detect photons by the heat they generate in a gas-filled chamber, causing the gas to expand and deform a flexible membrane whose deflection is measured.
A graphene/n-type silicon heterojunction has been demonstrated to exhibit strong rectifying behavior and high photoresponsivity.Graphene is coupled with silicon quantum dots (Si QDs) on top of bulk Si to form a hybrid photodetector. Si QDs cause an increase of the built-in potential of the graphene/Si Schottky junction while reducing the optical reflection of the photodetector. Both the electrical and optical contributions of Si QDs enable a superior performance of the photodetector.[22]
^Einstein, Albert (1905).On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light. Annalen der Physik.doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607.
^Smith, Willoughby (1913).Selenium Cells. Ernest Benn Limited.
^Donati, Silvano (2000).Photodetectors: Devices, Circuits and Applications. Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-020337-3.
^abDonati, S."Photodetectors"(PDF).unipv.it. Prentice Hall. Retrieved1 June 2016.
^abYotter, R.A.; Wilson, D.M. (June 2003). "A review of photodetectors for sensing light-emitting reporters in biological systems".IEEE Sensors Journal.3 (3):288–303.Bibcode:2003ISenJ...3..288Y.doi:10.1109/JSEN.2003.814651.
^Bishop, P.; Gibson, A.; Kimmitt, M. (October 1973). "The performance of photon-drag detectors at high laser intensities".IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics.9 (10):1007–1011.Bibcode:1973IJQE....9.1007B.doi:10.1109/JQE.1973.1077407.
^Yuan, Hongtao; Liu, Xiaoge; Afshinmanesh, Farzaneh; Li, Wei; Xu, Gang; Sun, Jie; Lian, Biao; Curto, Alberto G.; Ye, Guojun; Hikita, Yasuyuki; Shen, Zhixun; Zhang, Shou-Cheng; Chen, Xianhui; Brongersma, Mark; Hwang, Harold Y.; Cui, Yi (1 June 2015). "Polarization-sensitive broadband photodetector using a black phosphorus vertical p–n junction".Nature Nanotechnology.10 (8):707–713.arXiv:1409.4729.Bibcode:2015NatNa..10..707Y.doi:10.1038/nnano.2015.112.PMID26030655.
^Yu, Ting; Wang, Feng; Xu, Yang; Ma, Lingling; Pi, Xiaodong; Yang, Deren (2016). "Graphene Coupled with Silicon Quantum Dots for High-Performance Bulk-Silicon-Based Schottky-Junction Photodetectors".Advanced Materials.28 (24):4912–4919.doi:10.1002/adma.201506140.PMID27061073.S2CID205267070.
^Hadfield, Robert H. (2009). "Single-photon detectors for optical quantum information applications".Nature Photonics.3 (12):696–705.doi:10.1038/nphoton.2009.230.
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