The Phoenicians emerged directly from theBronze Age Canaanites, continuing their cultural traditions after theLate Bronze Age collapse into theIron Age with little disruption. They referred to themselves asCanaanites and their land asCanaan, though the territory they occupied was smaller than that of earlier Bronze Age Canaan.[7] The namePhoenicia is a Greekexonym that did not correspond to a unified native identity.[8][9] Modern scholarship generally views the distinction betweenCanaanites andPhoenicians afterc. 1200 BC as artificial.[7][10]
Renowned for seafaring and trade, the Phoenicians established one of antiquity's most extensive maritime networks, active for over a millennium. This network facilitated exchanges amongcradles of civilization such asMesopotamia,Egypt, andGreece. They founded colonies and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean; among these,Carthage in North Africa developed into a major power by the seventh century BC.
Phoenician society was organized into independentcity-states, notablyTyre,Sidon, andByblos.[11] Each retained political autonomy, and there is no evidence of a shared national identity.[12] Whilekingship was common, powerful merchant families likely exercised influence througholigarchies. The Phoenician cities flourished most in the ninth century BC, but subsequently declined under the expansion of empires such as theNeo-Assyrian andAchaemenid. Their influence nevertheless endured in the western Mediterranean until the Romandestruction of Carthage in the mid-second century BC.
Long regarded as a "lost" civilization due to the absence of native historical accounts, the Phoenicians became better understood only after the discovery ofinscriptions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Since the mid-twentieth century, archaeological research has revealed their significance in the ancient world.[13] Their most enduring legacy is the development of theearliest verified alphabet, derived fromProto-Sinaitic script,[14] which spread across the Mediterranean gave rise to theGreek alphabet and in turn theLatin andCyrillic scripts, as well as influencingSyriac andArabic writing systems.[15][16] They also contributed innovations inshipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and governance. Their commercial networks are considered foundational to the economic and cultural development of classical Mediterranean civilization.[17][18]
Being a society of independent city-states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;[19] instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city a person hailed from (e.g.,Sidonian forSidon,Tyrian forTyre, etc.) There is no evidence that the peoples living in the area denoted asPhoenicia identified as "Phoenicians" or shared a common identity, although they may have referred to themselves as "Canaanites".[20] Krahmalkov reconstructs theHoneyman inscription (dated toc. 900 BC byWilliam F. Albright) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling itPūt (Phoenician: 𐤐𐤕).[21][22]
Furthermore, as late as the first century BC, a distinction appears to have been made between 'Syrian' and 'Phoenician' people, as evidenced by the epitaph ofMeleager of Gadara: 'If you are a Syrian, Salam! If you are a Phoenician, Naidius! If you are a Greek, Chaire! (Hail), and say the same yourself.'[23]
Obelisks atKarnak contain references to a "land offnḫw",fnḫw being the plural form offnḫ, the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.[24] As anexonym,fnḫw was evidently loaned into Greek asφοῖνιξ,phoînix, which meant variably 'Phoenician person', 'Tyrian purple,crimson' or 'date palm'.Homer used it with each of these meanings.[25] The word is already attested inLinear B script ofMycenaean Greek from the 2nd millennium BC, aspo-ni-ki-jo. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people.[26] The namePhoenicians, likeLatinPoenī (adj.poenicus, laterpūnicus), comes fromGreekΦοινίκη,Phoiníkē. According to Krahmalkov,Poenulus, a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve aPunic term for the Phoenician/Punic language which may be reconstructed asPōnnīm,[27] a point disputed by Joseph Naveh, a professor of West Semiticepigraphy andpalaeography at theHebrew University.[28]
Since little has survived of Phoenician records orliterature, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).[29]
It is debated among historians and archaeologists whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known asCanaanites.[30][31] Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;[32] archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "Ammonites,Moabites,Israelites, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC".[33] Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world".[34]
The PhoenicianEarly Bronze Age is largely unknown.[35] The two most important sites areByblos and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.[35] TheMiddle Bronze Age was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.[36] In theLate Bronze Age, rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.[36]
The fourth-century BC Greek historianHerodotus claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from theErythraean Sea around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographerStrabo reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (Bahrain andMuharraq).[42][43][44][45] Some archaeologists working on thePersian Gulf have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of theDilmun civilizationc. 1750 BC.[43][44][45] However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.[46]
Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)
The first known account of the Phoenicians relates the conquests of PharaohThutmose III (1479–1425 BC), including the subjugation of those the Egyptians calledFenekhu ('carpenters').[47] The Egyptians targeted the coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via theNahr al-Kabir and theOrontes rivers). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region'snative cedarwood, of which there was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland.[48]Thutmose IV himself visited Sidon, where the purchase of lumber from Lebanon was arranged.[49]
By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" by the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of trade routes for precious goods such astin andlapis lazuli from as far east asAfghanistan. Sidon and Tyre also commanded the interest of Egyptian governmental officials,[50] beginning a pattern of commercial rivalry that would span the next millennium.
TheAmarna letters report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboringAmorites andHittites were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit[51] in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.
Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, theLate Bronze Age collapse severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including those of the Egyptians and the Hittites. The Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos maintained political independence, asserted their maritime interests, and enjoyed economic prosperity. The period sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance" had begun, and by the end of the 11th century BC, an alliance formed between Tyre and Israel had created a new geopolitical status quo in the Levant. Commercial maritime activity now involved not just mercantilism, but colonization as well, and Phoenician expansion into the Mediterranean was well under way.[52] The Phoenician city-states during this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli. They filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network.[30]
The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.[53]
Early in theIron Age, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlements all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established onCyprus,Sardinia, theBalearic Islands,Sicily, andMalta, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.[54] Phoenicianhacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.[55]
During the rule of the priestIthobaal (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.[57]
The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.[30] Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed withTyrian purple. Homer'sIliad, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.[30]
Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably to provide an anchorage and supplies to the Tyrian merchants in their voyages.[58] The city's name inPunic,Qart-Ḥadašt(𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕), means 'New City'.[59] There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such asPhilistos of Syracuse, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before thefall of Troy in 1180 BC. However,Timaeus, a Greek historian from Sicilyc. 300 BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.[60] Legend, includingVirgil'sAeneid, assigns the founding of the city to QueenDido. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in thePunic Wars (264–146 BC). It was eventually rebuilt as a Roman city byJulius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC, with the official nameColonia Iulia Concordia Carthago.[61]
Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)
Two bronze fragments from anAssyrian palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities ofTyre andSidon (859–824 BC). British Museum.
As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.[62]
The Assyrian domination of Phoenicia began with KingShalmaneser III. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. Although he did not invade Phoenicia and maintained good relations with the Phoenician cities,[63] he demanded tribute from the "kings of the seacoast", a group which probably included the Phoenician city-states.[64] According to Aubet, Tyre, Sidon, Arwad and Byblos paid tribute in bronze and bronze vessels, tin, silver, gold, ebony and ivory.[63] Initially, they were not annexed outright—they were allowed a certain degree of freedom.[65] This changed in 744 BC with the ascension ofTiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, was annexed;[66][67] only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control.[68]
Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC,Sargon II besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successorSennacherib suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed byEsarhaddon, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by theMedian Empire.[citation needed]
In 539 BC,Cyrus the Great, king and founder of the PersianAchaemenid Empire, took Babylon.[70] As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians".[71] Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a singlesatrapy (province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350talents, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya.[72]
The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other areas of the empire, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and the minting of coinage.[70]
Achaemenid-era coin ofAbdashtart I of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King
The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;[70] they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during theGreco-Persian Wars of the late fifth century BC.[73] Phoenicians underXerxes I built theXerxes Canal and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.[74] Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by Xerxes following his defeat at theBattle of Salamis, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[75]
In the mid-fourth century BC, KingTennes of Sidon led a failed rebellion againstArtaxerxes III, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians.[76] The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great.
Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered byAlexander the Great during hismilitary campaigns across western Asia. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughlyseven month siege, during which some of its non-combatant citizens were sent to Carthage.[77] Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple toMelqart, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens werecrucified and a puppet ruler was installed. The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.[78]
Alexander's empire had aHellenization policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenization was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented in other lands through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appears to have been very limited.[79]
The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts.Polybius recounts how the Seleucid KingDemetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.[77] The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".
When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, theSeleucids. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by thePtolemaic Kingdom of Egypt during the forty-yearSyrian Wars, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.
During theSeleucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC.[80][81][82] The Seleucid Kingdom was seized byTigranes the Great ofArmenia in 74/73 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant.[83][84]
The people now known as Phoenicians were a group ofancient Semitic-speaking peoples that emerged in theLevant in at least the third millennium BC.[30] Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning 'Canaanites'. Phoenicians identified themselves specifically with the name of the city they hailed from (e.g.,Sidonian forSidon,Tyrian forTyre, etc.).[citation needed][failed verification]
A 2008 study led byPierre Zalloua found that six subclades ofHaplogroup J-M172 (J2)—thought to have originated between theCaucasus Mountains,Mesopotamia and theLevant—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted inLebanon".[85] Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island ofIbiza.[86]
In 2016, the rareU5b2c1 maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow fromIberia to theMaghreb.[87]
According to a 2017 study published by theAmerican Journal of Human Genetics, present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from aCanaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least theBronze Age.[88][89] More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at theSanger Institute in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from fiveCanaanite people who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from theCanaanites (the other 7 percent was of aEurasian steppe population).[89]
One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenousSardinians integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.[90]
In a 2020 study published in theAmerican Journal of Human Genetics, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since theBronze Age interrupted by three significant admixture events during theIron Age,Hellenistic, andOttoman period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancientAnatolians or ancientSouth-Eastern Europeans (12–37%). The results show that aSteppe-like ancestry, typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.[91]
The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.[53]
Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.
Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with theMinoan civilization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with theMycenaean civilization (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.[92] Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.[citation needed]
The Phoenicians were known for trading beer across their colonies around the Mediterranean, particularly along the North African coast.[93] The trade expanded to regions beyond the Mediterranean, including the Basque Country, where it is believed that beer brewing was introduced by the Phoenicians.[94][better source needed]
To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,[95] andwine beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west ofAscalon, Israel.[96] Pottery kilns atTyre andSarepta produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians boughtNubian gold.
Phoeniciansarcophagi found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.[97][98] Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.
From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial beingsilver, mostly fromSardinia and theIberian Peninsula. Tin for makingbronze "may have been acquired fromGalicia by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (Cornwall orBrittany) via theRhone valley and coastalMassalia".[99]Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via theCassiterides, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.[100]
Phoenician metal bowl with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with theMesopotamian theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.
Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than itscedar wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use.[30] The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such asglass-making, engraved andchased metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.[101]
The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They set up trade networks to market their glassware and became its leading source in antiquity, shipping flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean in their vessels.[102] Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used thepotter's wheel.[103] Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets.[101] TheIliad suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks.[30] Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carvedclam shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs.
The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed withTyrian purple, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from thehypobranchial gland of theMurex marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but now exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.[104] The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye inMogador, in present-dayMorocco.[105]
The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became astatus symbol in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions are unknown.[101]
Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations by Phoenicians probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles ofscoria and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.[106] The output of silver during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation there was enormous.[107] The Carthaginians relied on slave labor almost exclusively in their mining operations, and according to Rawlinson, because they likely continued the established practices of their predecessors in Iberia, the Phoenicians themselves probably also used slave labor.[108]
The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.[109] Thecommon grape vine may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived fromTranscaucasia via trade routes acrossMesopotamia or theBlack Sea. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as theOld Kingdom period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part inPhoenician religion, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice.[109] An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.[109] To preventoxidation of their contents, amphorae were sealed with a disk plug made of pinewood and a mixture of resin and clay.[110]
The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,[109] and may have taughtwinemaking to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.[111]
As early as 1200 BC, texts from Ugarit suggest that Canaanite merchant ships were capable of carrying cargoes weighing up to 450 tons. During the first millennium BC, the cargo capacity of Phoenician merchant ships ranged between 100 and 500 tons.[112] The Phoenicians pioneered the use of lockedmortise and tenon joints, known asPhoenician joints, to secure the planking of ship hulls underwater.[113][114] This method involved cutting mortises into adjoining planks and inserting wooden tenons to join them, which were then secured withdowels. Examples of this technique include theUluburun shipwreck (c. 1320 BC)[115][116] and theCape Gelidonya shipwreck (c. 1200 BC).[117][118] The innovation spread across the Mediterranean and influenced Greek and Roman shipbuilding,[119][120] with the Romans referring to it ascoagmenta punicana.[121][122]
The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce thebireme.Fernand Braudel cites the bas-relief carvings on thewalls of the palace ofNineveh which depict the Tyrian fleet fleeing the port of Tyre before the city was attacked by Sennacherib c. 700 BC. The Phoenicians sailed their biremes close to shore and only in fair weather.[123] They have also been credited with developing thetrireme by scholars such as Lucien Basch. Referring to archaeological evidence of ships depicted in the Nineveh relief,cylinder seals, and Phoenician coins, he argues that the trireme was invented in Sidon around 700 BC and later adopted by the Greeks.[124] The classicistJ. S. Morrison, a student of the trireme, quotesThucydides' statement thattriereis, or triremes, were said to have been built first at Corinth in Greece. Although he allows that Phoenicians of 701 BC were credited by the sculptor of the Nineveh relief with one type of the vessel, interpreted by Morrison as having three banks of oarsmen on each side in three tiers with the uppermost tier unmanned,[125] he argues that there is no good reason why Thucydides' account should not be believed.[126] The trieme was regarded as the most advanced vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world.[127]
Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels
The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. Theamphora, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre.[128] The first example ofadmiralty law also appears in the Levant.[129] The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.[130]
In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) longPhoenician trading ship was found nearGozo island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.[131][132][133]
Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)
The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.
Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modernBeirut) Ampi, Amia, Arqa,Baalbek, Botrys, Sarepta, andTripolis. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles.[30] Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia.
Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city ofMotya,Sicily, present-dayItaly
To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger.[134] A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period.[135] Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.[136]
The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were onCyprus andCrete, gradually moving westward towardsCorsica, theBalearic Islands,Sardinia, andSicily, as well as on the European mainland inCádiz andMálaga.[137] The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and onSicily,Sardinia and theBalearic Islands.[138] Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.[139]
Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,[140][141] which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates.[142] Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.
Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries.[citation needed] The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.[143][better source needed]
The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time.Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC,Tyre rose to become the most powerful city.
At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantlymonarchical. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; thepriesthood was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family.
Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that ofAhiram ofByblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.
Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".[78] In the sixth century BC, during the period ofBabylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to theRoman consul, known assufetes (shophets), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.[144][78]
19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.
In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.[78] When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.[78]
After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.
The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.
As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies.
As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful.[145] The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest.[citation needed] Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.[citation needed]
Around 1050 BC,[40] the Phoenicians developed a script for writingtheir own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, allconsonants (and is thus strictly anabjad).[146] It is believed to be a continuation of theProto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in theSinai and in Canaan in theLate Bronze Age.[147][148] Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet toAnatolia, North Africa, and Europe.[30][149] The namePhoenician is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, becausePhoenician,Hebrew, and otherCanaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before that time.[40][15] Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.
The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but via the drawn out process of long-term commercial exchange.[150] According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary atEretria is considered one of the places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet.[151] The legendary Phoenician heroCadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it toCrete,[152] whence it gradually diffused northwards.
Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most reflected in bronze and ivory work.[153]
Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance ofBronze Age conventions well into theIron Age, such as terracotta masks.[154] Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.[155] In theOld Testament, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendarySolomon's Temple in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".[154] TheIliad mentions the embroidered robes ofPriam's wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl ofchased silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".[156][157] The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.[158]
Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.[101] They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.[101]
Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.[159] In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.
Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states.[160] At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures:Jezebel, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, andDido, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. InVirgil's epic poem, theAeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage.
Figure ofBa'al with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancientUgarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast.Musée du Louvre.
The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their neighbors inCanaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout theancient Semitic world.[161][162] Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.[163] The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.[164]
Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such astemple prostitution[165] andchild sacrifice.[166] Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly inJeremiah 7:30–32, and in2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians.[167] Biblical traditions state that theTribe of Asher lived amongst local Phoenicians,[168][169] and thatDavid andSolomon gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.[170]
Canaanite religious mythology does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was calledEl (𐤀𐤋, 'god').[171] The son of El wasBaal (𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerfuldying-and-risingthunder god.[172] Other gods were called by royal titles, such asMelqart, meaning 'king of the city',[173] orAdonis for 'lord'.[174] Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.[175]
The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.[176][177] Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as wasAstarte, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.
Religious institutions in Tyre calledmarzeh (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty.Marzeh held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elitefraternities. Eachmarzeh nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors.[178] In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, themarzeh may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state'sAssembly.[179][180]
The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.[181] Figurines and votive fragments have been found in ceremonialfavissae, underground storage spaces for sacred objects, in the temples grounds of theTemple of the Obelisks in Byblos,[182] thePhoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb in the hinterland of Tyre,[183] and theTemple of Eshmun north of Sidon,[184] among others. Votive gifts were also recovered all over the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.[181] Since the Phoenicians were predominantly a seafaring people, some sources have speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. According toWilliam G. Dever, an archaeologist and scholar of the Old Testament, described features of the Solomonic Temple such as its longitudinal tripartite plan, fine furnishings, and elaborate decorative motifs were clearly inspired by Phoenician examples.[185]
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![Approximate extent of Phoenician settlements and trade routes c. 800 BC.[1]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPhoenician_maritime_expansions_across_the_Mediterranean.jpg)
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