Province of Syria Phoenice Provincia Syria Phoenice (Latin) ἐπαρχία τῆς Φοινίκης Συρίας (Koine Greek)
Province of theRoman Empire
c. 194–c. 392
Roman Empire in 210 with Syria Phoenice highlighted in red
Capital	Tyrus Emesa (co-capital since 218–222)
Historical era	Late Antiquity
• Created bySeptimius Severus	c. 194
• Division during the reign ofTheodosius the Great	c. 392
Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Syria Syria Palaestina Phoenice Libanensis Phoenice Paralia
Today part of	Lebanon Syria Israel

Phoenice (Latin:Syria PhoenīcēLatin:[ˈsʏri.apʰoe̯ˈniːkeː];Koine Greek:ἡ Φοινίκη Συρία,romanized: hē Phoinī́kē SyríaKoine Greek:[(h)epʰyˈni.kesyˈri.a]) was aprovince of theRoman Empire, encompassing the historical region ofPhoenicia. It was officially created in 194 AD and afterc. 392,Phoenice Syria was divided intoPhoenice proper orPhoenice Paralia, andPhoenice Libanensis, a division that persisted until the region wasconquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 630s.

Phoenicia cameunder Roman rule in 64 BC, whenPompey created the province ofSyria. With the exception of a brief period in 36–30 BC, whenMark Antony gave the region toPtolemaic Egypt, Phoenicia remained part of the province of Syria thereafter.^[1] EmperorHadrian (reigned 117–138) is said to have considered a division of the overly large Syrian province in 123–124 AD.

It was not until shortly after c. 194 AD thatSeptimius Severus (r. 193–211) actually undertook this, dividing the province intoSyria Coele in the north andSyria Phoenice in the south.^[1] The province was much larger than the area traditionally calledPhoenicia: for example, cities likeEmesa^[a] andPalmyra^[b] and the base of theLegio III Gallica^[c] inRaphanaea^[d] were now subject to the governor who resided inTyre. Veterans of this military unit were settled in Tyre, which also received the rank ofcolonia.^[2]

After the death of the 2nd century Roman emperorCommodus, a civil war erupted, in whichBerytus, andSidon supportedPescennius Niger. While the city of Tyre supported Septimius Severus, which led Niger to sendMauri^[e]javelin men and archers to sack the city.^[3] However, Niger lost the civil war, and Septimius Severus decided to show his gratitude for Tyre's support by making it the capital of Phoenice. Berytus was permitted to maintain its status as a Roman colony but lost the territory ofHeliopolis, which was established as a separate colony.Ulpian, a native of Tyre, states that the grant of colonial status to Heliopolis resulted from this civil war.^[4]Elagabalus (r. 218–222) later raised his nativeEmesa to co-capital, and the two cities rivalled each other as the head of the province until its division in the 4th century.^[1] However, Elagabalus is recognized for bestowing imperial favor on Berytus, along with other cities in the region.^[5]

Septimius Severus revitalized Phoenician identity through the establishment of Phoenice. This revival of an ancient regional name seems to have stemmed from his pride in his origins in the region ofDido in North Africa and his wife’s ancestral ties to historic Phoenicia. This deliberate invocation of the legendary connection between Tyre andCarthage, celebrated in theAeneid, was reflected in several significant projects.

During the early third century, Septimius Severus and his successors undertook extensive construction in the coastal cities of Phoenicia as well as in various Punic cities in North Africa. Notably,Lepcis Magna, his birthplace, was richly adorned and linked to the city of Tyre through coins^[6] and inscriptions.^[7][8] TheSeveran dynasty actively promoted the Phoenician-Roman connection by glorifying the Aeneid and its characters.

For instance, coins from Tyre during this period depict Dido overseeing the founding of Carthage, and one inscription from Lepcis Magna dedicated toGeta honored 'SEPTIMIA TYROS COLONIA METROPOLIS PHOENICES ET ALIARUM CIVITATUM' (‘Tyre the Septimian colony, mother-city of Phoenicia and of other cities.’). These efforts not only served to elevate his imperial authority and family heritage but also bolstered Phoenician identity in the newly formed province of Phoenice.^[7]

Achillius I was referred to as thehegemon of Phoenice in a letter written to introduce Theophanes Scholasticus, a bureaucrat traveling from Egypt toAntioch between 317 and 324.^[9]

Flavius Dionysius served as governor of Phoenice from 328 to 329 and was the recipient of several laws and rescripts. A native ofSicily and an advocate, he also held the position of Consularis Syriae from 329 to 335. Additionally, he served asComes (Consistorius) in 335 and was responsible for overseeing theCouncil of Tyre.

Archelaus was consularis of Phoenice in 335 and is referred to ashypatikos bySocrates Scholasticus.^[10] He is notably remembered for discovering in hiding Arsenius, aMelitian bishop, whose hand was falsely claimed byEusebius' faction to have been used byAthanasius for magical rites after murdering its owner. During a trial, the severed hand was presented as evidence, but Athanasius exposed Arsenius, who was revealed to be alive and in full possession of both his hands.^[11][12]

Nonnus served as governor of Phoenice around 337, followed by Marcellinus, who held the position ofpraeses of Phoenice in 342. Later, Apollinaris governed Phoenice from 353 to 354, carrying the title ofrector provinciae at Tyre.^[13] Apollinaris and his son were involved in the plot againstConstantius Gallus and were executed, as reported byAmmianus Marcellinus.^[14]

By the 4th century, Phoenice was part of theDiocese of Oriens, which was governed by thecomes Orientis based in Antioch.^[15] Both the comes Orientis and the governor ofSyria resided in Antioch. AlthoughLibanius lived in Antioch, located in the province of Syria, he was deeply involved in the political dynamics of both Syria and Phoenice, partly because his income came from both provinces.

The identities of many governors of Phoenice are known through Libanius's correspondence, as several had personal or professional connections with him in Antioch. Among them was Demetrius, a wealthy native ofTarsus from a prominent family, who served as governor of Phoenice sometime before 358.^[13] Another governor, Julianus, held office before 360 and later becameproconsul of Asia in 360.^[16] Libanius regarded him as a good ruler,^[17] though he is distinct from another governor with the same name who served later.^[13]

Andronicus succeeded Julianus as governor, holding office from 360–361.^[18] He was a native ofConstantinople and had been one of Libanius’s students. Libanius sent numerous letters to Andronicus, which provide insights into the scope of authority held by the Phoenician governor.^[19] While serving in 360, Andronicus received a letter from Libanius on behalf of Apringius, a law student, in which Libanius requests that the governor exempt Fraternus, the future father-in-law of Apringius, from civic obligations in Phoenice.^[20] In other letters from the same year, Libanius references Andronicus' governorship. One letter featured a traditional depiction of Phoenicia’s natural and cultural wealth, praising the region’s fertility, seasonal harmony, temples, and the production ofpurple dye.^[21] Libanius frequently sought favors from the governors;^[22] an example of this is a letter from 360 AD, in which he asks for Phoenician huntsmen to participate in a civic entertainment event in Antioch.^[23] Andronicus was renowned for his works in judicial processes, particularly his efforts to eliminate abuses, and for his reputation for incorruptibility.^[24]

After leaving office, Andronicus settled in Tyre;^[25] he was still in Phoenicia in 363 when he received a letter from Libanius in which Phoenicia was described as the "fairest spot in the world" during the governorship of Marius.^[26] Another governor, Aelius Claudius Dulcitius, a Roman official of humble origins, hailed fromPhrygia. He rose to prominence during the reign of EmperorConstantius II, and according to the orator Libanius, Dulcitius was characterized by a love of wealth.^[27] He held the governorship of Phoenice sometime before 361.^[28]

Anatolius, originally fromCilicia, served as governor of Phoenice in 361,^[29][30] accompanied by his sons, Apolinarius and Gemellus.^[31] Libanius wrote about the legal cases overseen by Anatolius during his tenure, notably recounting a high-profile case of rape committed by a tax collector. Libanius also offered a description of Phoenice at the time, portraying it as "the most civilized region of all," and governed by the rule of law.^[32]

Polycles, the governor of Phoenice from 361 to 362 was the first official appointed byJulian after he became sole emperor.^[33] However, Julian later dismissed him for incompetence, leading Polycles to harbor resentment toward him. However, Libanius defends Julian against Polycles' grievances.^[34]

Another Julianus served as consularis of Phoenice in 362. A native of Syria, he was highly skilled in Greek, Latin, and law,^[35] and later became comes Orientis in 364. Libanius sought Julianus’ assistance in restoring his salary supplement from Phoenice.^[36] Julianus held the position of consularis Phoenices as of September 3, 362.^[37] Libanius wrote to him to ensure the arrangement for the partial payment of his salary as a rhetoric teacher in Antioch was honored. This arrangement, restored by Salutius, Julian’spraetorian prefect, reversed a salary cut imposed byHelpidius.^[38]

The governor Libanius knew and valued most wasGaianus, who served as consularis of Phoenice from 362 to 363, succeeding Julianus.^[39] A native of Tyre,^[40] Gaianus was a pagan^[41] and an advocate who graduated from theLaw School of Berytus.^[42] Before 362, he held the position ofAssessor to an official in Antioch.^[43] According to Libanius, Gaianus owed his appointment to the use of charm or magic. Throughout his life, Libanius sent him numerous letters, ranging from requests to expressions of praise and friendship. In 363, Gaianus passed his position to Marius but remained in Phoenicia, where he continued to reside.^[44]

Marius I served as the consularis of Phoenice from 363 to 364. A native of Antioch,^[45][46] he was a pagan, a sophist,^[47] and a skilled orator, as described by Libanius. Marius retired in 364 and was succeeded by Ulpianus, who served as Governor of Phoenice in 364.^[48] Ulpianus, a rhetorician, had previously governedCappadocia from 361 to 363 before his appointment in Phoenicia.^[49]

Domninus held the position of consularis of Phoenice from 364 to 365.^[50] A native ofLarissa, Syria, he was an advocate before assuming office.^[51] During 365, Tyre and Sidon alongside several other coastal cities were damaged by a tsunami caused by theCrete earthquake.^[52] There is a significant gap in Libanius' preserved correspondence, spanning approximately 24 years, with letters resuming from 388 onward. However, the law codes reveal that Leontius served as consularis of Phoenice in 372, and Petrus held the same position in 380.^[53]

Libanius resumed his correspondence with the governors of Phoenicia around 382 AD, during the reign of Theodosius I. The appointment ofProculus to this position is particularly noteworthy, as he was openly a pagan. Proculus, a native ofLycia, marked his tenure with a significantinscription above Berytus, commemorating the construction of a road through the mountains.^[54][55] Before 382, he served as Governor of Palestine and later became Governor of Phoenice in 382–383. Following this role, he assumed the position of Comes Orientis from 383 to 384.^[56]

Eustathius is believed to have served as Governor of Phoenice before 388.^[57] Libanius initially praised him for his skills as a rhetorician but later turned against him, criticizing him harshly. A native ofCaria, Eustathius had little interest in the civil service or legal profession, leading him to study rhetoric in Athens. He later delivered numerous speeches in the cities of Phoenice, gaining the favor of a general from Antioch. Over the course of his career, he held three offices, rising from poverty to considerable wealth. He is later mentioned in connection with Phoenice, a reference that supports the theory he may have been governor there.^[58] After retiring, Eustathius was convicted of corruption and retreated to his estate in Tyre, where he was besieged by the Tyrians until he paid them off.^[59][54]

Antherius might have served as Governor of Phoenice or held another high-ranking position in 388.^[60] He is mentioned as a hegemon in a letter Libanius addressed to Gaianus, who had been the governor of Phoenice during the 360s.^[61] In 388, Epiphanius is also documented as the Governor (consularis) of Phoenice.^[62]

A second Domitius served as Governor (consularis) of Phoenice in 390,^[63] with authority to address complaints in Tyre.^[64] Severianus held the position of Governor (consularis) of Phoenice in 391,^[65] he also received correspondence from Libanius in 391.^[66] Leontius served as Governor of Phoenice in 392,^[67] and was referred to as archon. He is the last known governor of Phoenice mentioned in Libanius's correspondence.^[54]

Diocletian (r. 284–305) separated the district ofBatanaea and gave it toArabia, while sometime before 328, when it is mentioned in theLaterculus Veronensis,Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) created the new province ofAugusta Libanensis out of the eastern half of the old province, encompassing the territory east ofMount Lebanon.^[68]

Constantine's province was short-lived, but formed the basis of the re-division of Phoenice c. 394 into thePhoenice I orPhoenice Paralia (Greek:Φοινίκη Παραλία, "coastal Phoenice"), andPhoenice II orPhoenice Libanensis (Φοινίκη Λιβανησία), with Tyre and Emesa as their respective capitals.^[68] In theNotitia Dignitatum, written shortly after the division, Phoenice I is governed by aconsularis, while Libanensis is governed by apraeses, with both provinces under theDiocese of the East.^[69] This division remained intact until theMuslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s.^[70] Under theCaliphate, most of the two Phoenices came under theprovince of Damascus, with parts in the south and north going to the provinces ofJordan andEmesa respectively.^[71]

The ecclesiastical administration paralleled the political, but with some differences. The bishop of Tyre emerged as the pre-eminent prelate of Phoenice by the mid-3rd century.^[70]

Since the time of Septimius Severus, it had been the practice to assign not more than twolegions to each frontier province, and, although in some provinces one legion was sometimes deemed sufficient, the upper limit was not exceeded. This policy appears to have been continued during the third century AD, as seen in the case ofAurelian raising the garrisons of Phoenice to the normal strength of two legions.^[72] Furthermore, during this century, theThird Legio Gallica was stationed in Tyre or Sidon.^[73]

In the late fourth century an edict to draft the sons of veterans was issued fromBerytus.^[74]

TheEdict on Maximum Prices was issued by the emperor Diocletian in 301 AD, with the prices and simulated sailing times fromNicomedia to Berytus being 12denarii for 9.9 days of duration with the ratio (price/duration) being 0.83.^[75]

During the fourth-century abundant crops of grain, wine, oil, and other products were attributed to the cities of Berytus,Byblos, Tyre, andSarepta.^[76] Further evidence of agricultural production near Berytus is found in the fourth-century journal of the bureaucrat Theophanes, who traveled between Antioch and Egypt from 317 to 324 AD. In Berytus, Theophanes noted buying two types of bread ("pure white" for officials amongst his party and "coarse" for the servants), as well as grapes, figs, pumpkins or squashes, peaches, apricots, and cleaning supplies such asnatron, bath oil, and soap. Similar purchases of bread, fresh produce, wine, and even snow to cool the wine (in Byblos) were made during each stop along the journey. They also came to Sidon on the following day and bought eggs.^[77]

A coin from Berytus during the reign of Elagabalus depicts a grand archway adorned with columns and sculptures.^[78] During the reign of theEmperor Philip I the Arab (244-249 CE), bronze coins were struck at Heliopolis in honour of thelegions Fifth Macedonia andEighth Augusta.^[79]

A Romanmint was established inTripolis, 273/274 AD and lasted till 286/287.^[80][81]

In the fourth century, as a whole, almost 30 governors of Phoenicia are known with 23 governors of Phoenicia being in office between 353 and 394.^[83]

• Collinet, Paul (1869-1938) Auteur du texte (1925).Études historiques sur le droit de Justinien. 2, Histoire de l'école de droit de Beyrouth / par Paul Collinet,...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994).The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7.
• Eißfeldt, Otto (1941). "Phoiniker (Phoinike)".Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Vol. Band XX, Halbband 39,Philon–Pignus. pp. 350–379.
• Schürer Emil,Vermes Geza,Millar Fergus,The history of the Jewish people in the age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), Volume I, Edinburgh 1973, p. 243-266 (Survey of the Roman Province of Syria from 63 B.C. to A.D. 70).
• Linda Jones Hall,Roman Berytus: Beirut in late antiquity (2004)
• Martindale, J. R.; Jones, A. H. M,The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I AD 260–395, Cambridge University Press (1971)

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