Philippine Spanish (Spanish:español filipino orcastellano filipino)^[4] is thevariety of standardSpanish spoken in thePhilippines, used primarily bySpanish Filipinos.

Spanish as spoken in the Philippines contains a number of features that distinguish it from other varieties of Spanish, combining features from bothPeninsular andLatin American varieties of the language. Philippine Spanish also employs vocabulary unique to the dialect, reflecting influence from the nativelanguages of the Philippines as well as broader sociolinguistic trends in Spanish, and is considered to be more linguistically conservative and uniform than Spanish spoken elsewhere.

Officially regulated by thePhilippine Academy of the Spanish Language (AFLE,Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española), up to a million people in the Philippines are claimed to be either proficient in or have knowledge of Spanish,^[3] with around 4,000 people claiming Spanish as theirnative language,^[1] although estimates vary widely.

Philippine Spanish speakers may be found nationwide, mostly in urban areas but with the largest concentration of speakers inMetro Manila. Smaller communities are found particularly in regions where the economy is dominated by large agriculturalplantations, such as thesugarcane-producing regions ofNegros, particularly aroundBacolod andDumaguete, and in the fruit-producing regions ofMindanao, particularly aroundCagayan de Oro andDavao City.^[5] Other centers where Spanish-speaking populations can be found include the cities ofCebu,Iloilo andZamboanga.^[6] Most native Philippine Spanish speakers are part of the country'smiddle andupper classes.^[5]

Estimates as to the number of Spanish speakers in the Philippines vary widely, with estimates ranging from the thousands to the millions.^[7] In 2014, theInstituto Cervantes (IC) estimated that there were around one million Spanish speakers in the Philippines, regardless of level of proficiency,^[3] while in 2023 Maria Luisa Young, professor of Spanish and head of the Department of Modern Languages at theAteneo de Manila University, estimated without confidence that around 500,000 people in the Philippines either speak or at least know Spanish.^[8] A 2023 report by the IC, meanwhile, estimated that there are around 465,000 Spanish speakers in the Philippines, though only counting Spanish citizens in the Philippines as having a native-level command of the language,^[a] including speakers of the various dialects ofChavacano, aSpanish-based creole, as limited-competence speakers,^[b] and excluding Filipinos who studied Spanish in universities before 1986.^[11] When counting native speakers, thePhilippine Statistics Authority reported in the2020 Philippine census that only 167 households nationwide spoke Spanish at home,^[13] and a 2020 estimate estimated that this group numbered around 4,000 people,^[1] but the actual number of native Philippine Spanish speakers living today may be impossible to determine.^[14]

Accurately counting Spanish speakers in the Philippines is complicated by the Philippine government not keeping updated official statistics, with the last supposedly reliable statistics on the number of speakers dating back to 2008. That estimate placed the number of native Spanish speakers at around 6,000, with an additional two million Filipinos who speak Spanish either as a second or third language and another 1.2 million Chavacano speakers, and that number possibly being larger due to increasing interest in learning Spanish among Filipinos for professional reasons.^[15]

In addition to reported estimates of speakers, it is believed that there is an undetermined but significant number of Spanishsemi-speakers, Filipinos who may otherwise have never formally learned Spanish but whose knowledge of the language, whilst below that of native speakers, is considered to be superior to that of foreign students learning the language for the first time.^[5]

Compared to other Spanish varieties, Philippine Spanish is among the least studied, and many contemporary studies that claim to talk about the dialect were, in fact, either dealing with Spanish loanwords in the nativelanguages of the Philippines or, more erroneously, to the various Chavacano dialects to which it was often mistakenly confused for.^[16]

Philippine Spanish has been described as beingendangered,^[2] or even totallydead,^[17] with most speakers also being fluent in English and the Philippine languages, and the language having few native speakers under the age of 50, with many of its speakers also having learned other Spanish dialects and are living outside the Philippines either in Spain or in other Spanish-speaking countries.^[17] In part due to theAmerican colonization of the Philippines, where English was imposed as the language of government and education, and the implementation of aTagalog-based national language (which later becameFilipino),^[18] use of Spanish declined, particularly afterWorld War II when English was entrenched as the language ofsocial prestige.^[19] Spanish-speaking Filipinos mostly use the language at home, with use of the language in public being limited by a lack of speakers and hostility from non-Spanish-speaking Filipinos toward the language,^[5] although many Filipinos who previously studied Spanish while it was still mandatory are capable of sustaining a conversation that reasonably approximates the language.^[20]

This, however, contrasts with recent trends concerning Spanish in the Philippines more broadly, on the one hand due to changing attitudes toward the language among non-Spanish-speaking Filipinos,^[21] and on the other due to the growing prestige of the language worldwide.^[22] Interest in the language started growing in the 1990s, only a few years after the language lost its official status,^[23] and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system,^[24] with over 7,000 students studying the language in the 2021–2022 school year alone.^[25] Thelocal business process outsourcing industry has also contributed to the growing popularity of Spanish as Spanish speakers have a larger earnings potential than English speakers in the industry.^[26] A new generation of Spanish speakers has since emerged as a result,^[27] most of whom aresecond-language speakers,^[23] and with some using the language to shownational pride,^[28] though there exists within this group a smaller number of first-language Spanish speakers who are learning the language at home from their second-language parents.^[27]

External videos
Samples of contemporary Philippine Spanish speakers
Anna Balcells, founder of the Kalipay Negrense Foundation (2022)
Guillermo Gómez Rivera, director of thePhilippine Academy of the Spanish Language (2022)
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, 14thpresident of the Philippines (2011)
Fernando Zialcita, professor of anthropology at theAteneo de Manila University (2024)

Philippine Spanish phonology has been described as conservative and refined, reflecting the socioeconomic status of its speakers, and exhibiting features largely present in the standard dialects ofPeninsular Spanish as spoken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,^[29] with little influence from dialects such asAndalusian orCanarian nor from languages likeCatalan orGalician despite significant immigration to the Philippines from those areas of Spain.^[30] Nevertheless, a number of phonological traits still distinguish Philippine Spanish from Spanish spoken elsewhere as a result of earlier contact withLatin American Spanish varieties, contact with the Philippine languages and the development of Chavacano,^[31] though unlike withPhilippine English, Philippine Spanish phonology is generally uniform, with very little (if any) dialectical variation in terms of pronunciation between speakers of Spanish from different regions of the country.^[5]

As in some dialects in northern Spain and some bilingual zones (Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru) of Latin America,^[32] Philippine Spanish has a phonological distinction between the sounds represented byll (/ʎ/) andy (/ʝ/).^[33][34] For example,calle ('street') is pronounced/ˈkaʎe/ (Tagalogkalye) as opposed to the pronunciation/ˈkaʝe/ found in most other present-day Spanish varieties.^[35] The phoneme/ʎ/ may be realized closer to[lj] in the pronunciation of some younger Philippine Spanish speakers.^[33] Sometimes/ʎ/ is depalatalized to[l] in word-initial positions: for example,lluvia ('rain'), normally pronounced/ˈʎubia/, is pronounced[ˈlubja].^[36]

Whileyeísmo, which merges the two, is today considered extremely rare and idiosyncratic in Philippine Spanish,^[33] it has been suggested that a moreyeísta pronunciation was previously standard owing to the influence of both Andalusian andMexican Spanish speakers in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[37] This is suggested by words such ascaballo ('horse'), pronounced/kaˈbajo/ in many Philippine languages and with the spelling reflecting this pronunciation (e.g. Tagalogkabayo),^[38] although others have instead borrowed thelleísta form (e.g. Ilocanokabalio).^[39] Speakers only shifted to a contrasting pronunciation, which was characteristic of the aristocratic Castilian pronunciation of the time, toward the end of the 19th century in the final years of Spanish colonization,^[37] although it has been suggested that a residualyeísmo continues to persist in the speech of modern-day Philippine Spanish speakers.^[40]

Newer generations of Spanish speakers have begun adopting phonological features closer to standard Peninsular Spanish, includingyeísmo, as a result of being educated in that dialect,^[41] although the majority of those studying Spanish in the Philippines as a foreign language nonetheless continue to contrast both sounds.^[42]

Like Latin American Spanish, Philippine Spanish practicesseseo, where/θ/ is normally not distinguished from/s/. This is particularly evidenced by borrowings into the Philippine languages where, for example,circo ('circus'), pronounced/ˈθiɾko/ in Peninsular Spanish, became Tagalogsirko (pronounced/ˈsiɾko/).^[38] Althoughseseo remains the dominant pronunciation today,^[43] in a similar way to the introduction of a contrast betweeny andll at the end of the 19th century, some native speakers have begun practicingdistinción,^[44] where/θ/ is distinguished from/s/, but do not always do so consistently.^[45]

Newer generations of Spanish speakers have begun adoptingdistinción as a result of being educated in Peninsular Spanish, alongside a contemporary adoption ofyeísmo.^[41] Among those studying Spanish in the Philippines as a foreign language, most practicedistinción although a large group of students nonetheless practiceseseo, and among those who do practicedistinción, most do so inconsistently.^[46]

The consonants/b/,/d/ and/g/ are uniformly pronounced asplosive (hard) consonants in Philippine Spanish, contrasting with other Spanish dialects where these are usually softened to eitherapproximants orfricatives.^[45] While the softened pronunciations are also heard, this varies between speakers and even between individual phonemes.^[47]

Of particular note is the pronunciation ofintervocalic/d/, where it can even overlap with and is occasionally pronounced as[ɾ] as is the case in the Philippine languages.^[47] This trait has also carried over to Chavacano and has influenced how the Philippine languages have treated Spanish loans as in the case, for example, of Spanishpared ('wall') becoming Tagalogpader.^[45]

Intervocalic/d/ is also frequentlyelided, particularly with words ending in the suffix-ado.^[45]

Before theclose vowel/i/,/d/ and/t/ are oftenpalatalized by Philippine Spanish speakers, becoming[dʲ] and[tʲ] respectively. Occasionally these may beaffricated instead, becoming[dʒ] and[tʃ] respectively as in the case of Spanish loans to the Philippine languages (cf.yod-coalescence in English, ora similar phenomenon in Brazilian Portuguese). For example,Dios ('God'), normally pronounced/ˈdios/, may be pronounced[ˈd͡ʒos] (TagalogDiyos), ortiangue ('open-air market'), normally pronounced/ˈtjanɡe/, may be pronounced[ˈt͡ʃaŋɡe] (Tagalogtiyangge).^[48]

In a similar manner, speakers also occasionally palatalize/s/ to[ʃ] when placed before/i/. For example,negocio ('business'), normally pronounced/neˈɡosjo/, may be pronounced[neˈɡoʃo] (Tagalognegosyo),^[49] andciudad ('city'), normally pronounced/sjuˈdad/, may be pronounced[ʃuˈdad] (Tagalogsiyudad).^[50]

The velar jota sound (/x/) is present in Philippine Spanish, similar to standard Peninsular Spanish, though this is mostly retracted to glottal[h], which also occurs in Andalusian, Caribbean, Canarian, Central American, and Colombian Spanish.^[51]

Often interchanged in Philippine Spanish are the non-open vowels/e/ and/i/,/o/ and/u/,^[52] and the bilabial consonants/p/ and/f/,^[50] following a similar tendency in the Philippine languages.^[49] For example,Filipinas ('Philippines') would be pronounced[piliˈpinas] (TagalogPilipinas),tenía ('I had') would be pronounced[tiˈnia], andcomen ('they eat') would be pronounced[ˈkumen].^[53]

Unlike many Peninsular and Latin American dialects, syllable-final/s/ is notdebuccalized, and is always pronounced as an alveolar sibilant ([s]) rather than as a glottal fricative ([h]).^[54] For example,las moscas ('flies', as inthe insect) is always pronounced[lasˈmoskas].^[55] The retention ofs is reflective of the influence of northern Peninsular Spanish dialects, although it is considered an unusual development in Philippine Spanish given the large number of Andalusian Spanish speakers among the last wave of Spanish migrants to the Philippines.^[45]

In contrast, Chavacano speakers do practice syllable-final s-dropping, most notably among older speakers of the Zamboagueño dialect spoken in theZamboanga Peninsula.^[33]

As a result of contact with the Philippine languages, theglottal stop[ʔ] regularly manifests in the speech of most (if not all) Philippine Spanish speakers, and is normally found in word-initial positions where the pronunciation begins with a vowel.^[56] For example,alma ('spirit') would be pronounced[ˈʔalma].^[57] This is also present when the word is preceded by a pause, which in other Spanish dialects would be subject to consonantal linking (similar to theliaison in French). For example,el hombre ('the man') would be pronounced as[elˈʔombɾe] in Philippine Spanish but[eˈlombɾe] in other Spanish dialects.^[56]

The glottal stop also appears in some vowel sequences, serving to clearly delineate syllables from one another. For example,maíz ('corn') would be pronounced[maˈʔis], andbaúl ('trunk', as inthe luggage) would be pronounced[baˈʔul].^[57]

Philippine Spanish clearly distinguishes between the use of[ɾ] and[l], similar to standard Peninsular Spanish. However, earlier speakers may have interchanged both sounds, with/l/ becoming[ɾ] and/ɾ/ becoming[l] as in Caribbean and southern Peninsular Spanish dialects, and which was retained in the various Chavacano dialects.^[51]

Despite this distinction certain words in the Philippine Spanish lexicon nevertheless reflect this earlier tendency to interchange both sounds, such asbalasar, a variant ofbarajar ('to shuffle') which the dialect had preserved.^[58]

Similar to Latin American, Canarian and certain Peninsular Spanish dialects,^[59] Philippine Spanish pronounces the letter sequencetl in the same syllable. For example, the wordatlas is pronounced[ˈa.tlas], not[ˈað.las] as in standard Peninsular Spanish.^[60]

Philippine Spanish has been described as having no particularly unique morphological features,^[61] although deviations from standard Spanish morphology and syntax have been reported as a result of Spanish's position as a minority language in the Philippines.^[62]

AlongsideEquatoguinean Spanish, Philippine Spanish is one of only two Spanish dialects outside of Spain to use the second-person plural pronounvosotros,^[63] althoughustedes, standard in Latin America, has been reported as also being common in written texts.^[64] The second-person familiar pronountú is also freely used, even in situations where the polite pronounustedwould be used instead,^[63] and whilevoseo is absent in contemporary Philippine Spanish, which exclusively usestú,^[65] it has been suggested thatvoseo previously existed in the dialect as evidenced by its residual use in expressions such as¡rayo vos! (lit. 'go to hell!'), which in turn led to the development ofvoseo in Chavacano.[66]

Unlike other overseas Spanish dialects, Philippine Spanish is said to employleísmo, where the pronounle is used when referring to third-person masculine direct objects instead oflo as is the case elsewhere,^[63] although others have said this only represents a minority of speakers and that Philippine Spanish speakers mostly uselo.^[61] However, for indirect objects, the use ofle is predominant, with a minority of speakers usingla (laísmo).^[61]

Indicatingpossession in Philippine Spanish is frequently expressed not through possessive adjectives, but rather by combining the object with the constructionde ('of') and the possessor. For example, instead ofnuestros parientes ('our relatives') as in standard Spanish, Philippine Spanish speakers would often saylos parientes de nosotros (lit. 'the relatives of us').[67] This also happens with the third-person possessive pronounsu, which parallels Latin American usage with speakers alternating between, for example,Este perro es suyo (lit. 'This dog is theirs') andEste perro es de él (lit. 'This dog is of him').[68] A similar phenomenon also defines the naming of certain flora, with fruit trees sometimes being called the tree of that fruit. For example, while Spanish has an actual word for an orange tree,naranjo, Philippine Spanish speakers would sometimes sayárbol de naranja instead.^[69]

In expressingderivation, the most commonly usedsuffix for creatingdiminutives in Philippine Spanish is-ito, although-illo is also encountered but less commonly.^[70] Foraugmentatives, the most commonly used suffix is-ón, followed by-azo and-ote in order of frequency.^[71] Meanwhile, for formingcollective nouns, the most common suffix is-ada, followed by-aje when referring to people. For plants and produce, the most common suffix is-al, followed by-ero and-ar, butnoun phrases formed by combining the name of the plant or produce, either with or without the standard suffixes depending on the plant or produce being discussed, withplantación (de) ('plantation [of]'),campo (de) ('field [of]') orsementera (de) ('land sown with') are also commonly employed.^[69]

In certain cases, Philippine Spanish expressesnegation in a manner broadly similar to other Spanish varieties. For example, the determinermás ('more' or'else') is used to amplifynunca ('never'),nadie ('no one'),nada ('nothing') andninguno ('nobody') and is normally found in a postnominal (after the word) position, but occasionally this is reversed by Philippine Spanish speakers withmás appearing in the prenominal (before the word) position.^[72]

Other cases exhibit deviations from standard Spanish usage. The negative adverbial phraseno más ("no more"), for example, is used in one of three ways in Philippine Spanish:^[73]

• To express exactness (Lo tiene al lado mismo no más;lit. 'He/she has it exactly right next to him/her').
• As an emphatic suffix (Estaba bromeando no más;lit. 'I was only joking'). This use ofno más is also found in Latin American Spanish, and is equivalent to the use ofsolo orsolamente in standard Spanish.^[74]
• To express finiteness (No hay más carruajes;lit. 'There aren't carriages any more'). This use ofno más may have come about as a result of English influence, and is equivalent to the use ofya no in other Spanish varieties.

Adverbialno is also regularly paired with other adverbs to express negation, even if the pairing would be considered redundant in standard Spanish. For example, Philippine Spanish speakers often pair adverbialno withtan andtanto (or eventantito), both implying extent, as a substitute forno muy ('not very') andno mucho ('not much') respectively.^[75] In a similar manner, Philippine Spanish speakers also often substitutetampoco ('neither') withtambién no (lit. 'also no'),[76] which has been formally proscribed in standard Spanish,^[77] and eventampoco itself is paired withno to create the redundantdouble negativetampoco no (lit. 'neither no'),[76] which in standard Spanish is likewise normally considered incorrect.^[78]

Over the centuries Philippine Spanish has developed a corpus offilipinismos (lit. 'Philippinisms'), vocabulary and expressions that are unique to the dialect, of which some have even entered Spanish more broadly and others which have influenced the native languages of the Philippines. Philippinisms in Philippine Spanish are usually derived from a number of sources: words borrowed into Spanish from the Philippine or other foreign languages, Spanish words that have since fallen out of use in Spain or in Spanish more broadly, and Spanish expressions made by Philippine Spanish speakers or are otherwise unique to the country.[79] Since the mid-20th century, the Philippine Spanish lexicon has also been significantly influenced by English, similar to the situation with Spanish inPuerto Rico and theUnited States.^[62]

Although there are efforts in documentingfilipinismos, and people studying Spanish as a foreign language today still learn and use Philippine Spanish vocabulary,^[80] many of them are in danger of disappearing due to the "foreignization" of Spanish language education in the Philippines (as Peninsular instead of Philippine Spanish is taught in schools), alongside poor documentation practices which lead to, among others, some expressions not being documented and some whose origin is obscured, and a lack of a stronger effort to compile a comprehensive dictionary of these expressions, or at least to include them in theDiccionario de la lengua española.^[79]

Philippine Spanish incorporates a number of words and expressions from Latin American Spanish varieties, most notably from Mexican Spanish but also including influences from other dialects.^[81] Some of the vocabulary said to be derived from Mexican Spanish, however, has been described as instead being direct loans to Philippine Spanish from Aztecan languages likeNahuatl as opposed to coming to the Philippines through Mexican Spanish.^[82] Words likemetate,^[83]jícara,^[84] andchongo reflect this influence, as well as the use of certainhypocorisms.^[81]

Latin American influence in Philippine Spanish is also reflected in the use of Americanisms likemaní to describepeanuts andhincarse to describekneeling, instead of the Peninsular Spanish equivalentscacahuete (or even the Mexican variantcacahuate) andarrodillarse.^[81]

Much of the basic vocabulary of Philippine Spanish is also derived from Peninsular Spanish. For example, Philippine Spanish usespatata to describe apotato, the same as in Spain.^[85] Some words do take on a different meaning in Philippine Spanish: for example, while speakers use the Latin Americancamarón to describe ashrimp (e.g.camarón rebozado),^[86] the Peninsular equivalentgamba is also used but with a slightly more specialized meaning (in this case, a shrimp smaller than acamarón).^[87]

In certain cases some words are used by speakers in a more-or-less equal proportion, such as with the Peninsularmelocotón and the Latin Americandurazno to describe apeach.^[88] In others, the Peninsular equivalent isn't used at all: for example, to describe anapartment the Latin American termsapartamento anddepartamento are used exclusively as opposed to the Peninsularpiso.^[89]

Anglicisms in Philippine Spanish can be classified into three types: those that are present in standard Spanish, those that are also found in Spanish as spoken in the United States, and a much smaller number of words that were borrowed into the language but still carry their original spelling and meaning from English. These include words likeplanta for'plant' (instead offábrica),sugestión for'suggestion' (instead ofsugerencia) and the direct importation of English words likeavocado,jeepney andoverol ('overalls').^[90]

Because most Spanish-speaking Filipinos are also fluent in English,^[5] English pronunciation also affects how Philippine Spanish speakers pronounce certain words. Some speakers, for example, would pronounceEuropa ('Europe') as[juˈɾopa], as in English, instead of/euˈɾopa/.^[91]

Many words and expressions used by Spanish speakers in the Philippines are unique to Philippine Spanish, though a number of these have since entered theDiccionario de la lengua española and other publications of theRoyal Spanish Academy (RAE). Some of the firstfilipinismos incorporated by the RAE into its publications include words likecaracoa,barangay andparao, which entered the broader lexicon in the late 18th and early 19th century, and the number offilipinismos has ostensibly grown over time,^[92] forming a corpus where unique words and expressions in Philippine Spanish can be broadly placed into four categories:

• Words and expressions borrowed into Philippine Spanish, or even Spanish more broadly, as a result of contact with the Philippine languages (such asbolo, which was borrowed from the Tagalogbolo,^[93] orbaguio to describetyphoons).^[94] However, the extent of borrowing has varied: borrowing from the Philippine languages, or even from other languages likeChinese, into Philippine Spanish has been described as either being mainly limited to flora and fauna, contrasting with the significant influence played by Philippine languages in the development of Chavacano,^[95] or as being more varied but with loans largely being limited to sociocultural domains like food.^[96]
• Words and expressions that have fallen out of use in other Spanish dialects, but were retained in Philippine Spanish (such asaparador to describe awardrobe, whereas other Spanish dialects would usearmario,^[97] the use ofaeroplano instead ofavión to describe anairplane,^[98] or the use of the dated phrase¿Cuál es su gracia? [lit. 'What is your grace?'] to ask for someone's name,[99] which has since died out in other countries)^[100]
• Words and expressions that have undergone asemantic change in Philippine Spanish (such aslenguaje to refer to anational language,^[101] ormorisqueta to refer to cookedwhite rice)^[99]
• Words and expressions in Philippine Spanish that were developed in the Philippines by Spanish speakers and have no (or other) equivalents in other Spanish dialects (such asabrazador to describe abolster pillow,^[102]abogadillo to describe aparalegal,^[103]barcada to describe agroup of friends,^[104] orcódigo to describe acheat sheet)^[105]

In his observations of the language as spoken in the Philippines,Wenceslao Retana classifiesfilipinismos as belonging into one of five grammatical types:^[106]

• Words derived from Spanish that are commonly used in the Philippines and which could be reasonably understood by Spanish speakers in other countries (such asabanico,abogado,palenque andpetaca)
• Words which appear to be Spanish but are not Castilian in origin, coined by Philippine Spanish speakers either out of whim or necessity (such asdobladora andtinola)
• Words borrowed into Philippine Spanish from the Philippine languages but modified to fit Spanishprosody (such asbuyo andmolave)
• Words which contain Spanish suffixes, regardless if the term is formed from a Spanish root or from the Philippine languages (such asabacalero)
• Words specific to Philippine Spanish which were developed by Spanish-speaking Filipinos, and whose use had since been adopted by Spanish speakers arriving in the country from Spain or elsewhere (such ascasillas andcorrido)

Manyfilipinismos that are commonly used in the Philippines, such aspan de sal andcundimán, by both Spanish and non-Spanish speakers alike have yet to be recognized by the RAE,^[107] and calls have been made for their inclusion.^[108]

• Spanish dialects and varieties
• Spanish language in the Philippines
• Philippine literature in Spanish
• Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language

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• "El español en Filipinas. Un idioma de Estado" ("Spanish in the Philippines: A State Language"), a history of Spanish in the Philippines by theInstituto Cervantes (in Spanish)
• El Idioma Español en Filipinas (The Spanish Language in the Philippines), a documentary produced by the Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila featuring several Spanish-speaking Filipinos (in Spanish)
  • Full documentary onYouTube (in Spanish with English subtitles)
• Laboratorio de Fonética Antonio Quilis – La lengua española en Filipinas, a series of recordings made by Antonio Quilis and Celia Casado-Fresnillo documenting the speech of Philippine Spanish and Chavacano speakers (in Spanish)

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• Spanish East Indies
• Spanish language in the Philippines

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