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Philippine Hokkien
咱人話 / 咱儂話 Lán-lâng-uē / Lán-nâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē(Tâi-lô) Lán-lâng-ōe / Lán-nâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe(POJ)
Ongpin St.,Binondo,Manila (1949)
Native to	Philippines
Region	Metro Manila,Metro Cebu,Metro Davao,Zamboanga City,Cagayan de Oro,Metro Bacolod,Iloilo,Jolo,Tacloban,Angeles City,Vigan,Naga,Iligan,Ilagan,Baguio,Bohol,Laoag,Laguna,Rizal,Lucena,Cotabato, and many other parts of the Philippines
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Chinese Min Coastal Min Southern Min Hokkien Quanzhou Philippine Hokkien
Early forms	Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese[a] Proto-Min
Writing system	Chinese characters (traditional) Latin script Ad hoc methods, Sporadic use of varying borrowedorthographies from local or formerlingua francas, such as: English[b] Filipino[c] Mandarin[d] Spanish[e] Pe̍h-ōe-jī (sporadic) Tâi-lô (sporadic)
Language codes
ISO 639-3	nan forSouthern Min /Min Nan which encompasses a variety of Hokkien dialects including "Lannang" / "Lán-lâng-ōe" / "咱人話" / "Philippine Hokkien".[4]
Glottolog	None
Linguasphere	79-AAA-jek
IETF	nan-PH

Philippine Hokkien^[f] is a dialect of theHokkien language of theSouthern Min branch ofMin Chinese descended directly fromOld Chinese of theSinitic family, primarily spokenvernacularly byChinese Filipinos in thePhilippines, where it serves as the localChineselingua franca^[8][9] within theoverseas Chinese community in the Philippines and acts as theheritage language of a majority ofChinese Filipinos.^[10] Despite currently acting mostly as anoral language, Hokkien as spoken in the Philippines did indeed historically have awritten language and is actually one of the earliest sources forwritten Hokkien using bothChinese characters (traditionally viaClassical Chinese (漢文;Hàn-bûn) worded from and read inHokkien)^[11] as early as around 1587^[12] or 1593^[13] through theDoctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china and using theLatin script as early as the 1590s in theBoxer Codex and was actually the earliest to systematicallyromanize the Hokkien language throughout the 1600s in the Hokkien-Spanish works^[12] of theSpanish friars especially by theDominican Order, such as in theDictionario Hispánico-Sinicum (1626-1642)^[14] and theArte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620)^[15] among others. The use of Hokkien in thePhilippines was historically influenced byPhilippine Spanish,^[16][17][18]Filipino (Tagalog) andPhilippine English.^[5] As alingua franca of the overseas Chinese community in the Philippines, the minority of Chinese Filipinos ofCantonese andTaishanese descent also uses Philippine Hokkien for business purposes due to its status as "theChinoy business language" [sic].^[19] It is also used as aliturgical language as one of the languages thatProtestant Chinese Filipino churches typically minister in with theirchurch service, which they sometimes also minister to students inChinese Filipino schools that they also usually operate.^[20] It is also aliturgical language primarily used byChinese Buddhist,Taoist, andMatsuveneration temples in the Philippines, especially in theirsutra chanting services and temple sermons by monastics.^[21]

The termPhilippine Hokkien is used when differentiating the variety ofHokkien spoken in thePhilippines from those spoken inChina,Taiwan,Malaysia,Singapore,Indonesia, and otherSoutheast Asian countries.^[22][6]

Historically, it was also known inPhilippine English,Filipino (Tagalog), and otherPhilippine languages asFookien^[5][23][24] orFukien^[7] orFukienese^[25] across the country, derived from theChinese postal romanization of theNanjing court dialectMandarin reading ofFujian province inChina, such as in the old newspaper,The Fookien Times. It was historically and is still also called as just"Chinese"^{[18][23][24][26][25]} inEnglish or"Intsik"^[24] and"Tsino"^[24] inFilipino (Tagalog), usually generalized to refer toChinese languages in general, usually by those unfamiliar with theHokkien language compared with other Chinese languages or to promote to such people. It was also historically and is still formally and conservatively known as"Amoy",^[18][27] usually byProtestantChinese Filipino churches and schools who conduct"Amoy Worship Service" or"Chinese Worship Service" as part of theirliturgy,^[20] despite the danger of confusing theAmoy dialect of Hokkien compared to theHokkien language in general, although these protestant Chinese Filipino churches also do indeed occasionally use abstractliturgical terms from theAmoy dialect of Hokkien too from time to time and also typically usebibles andhymnal books fromXiamen (Amoy) typically written in theAmoy dialect of Hokkien.

Theendonym used by speakers of the dialect itself or theHokkien language in general though is typically,Chinese:咱人話 /咱儂話;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe;Tâi-lô:Lán-nâng-uē / Lán-lâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē.^[5]

Only 12.2% of all ethnic Chinese in the Philippines have avariety of Chinese as theirmother tongue. Nevertheless, the vast majority (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as asecond orthird language.^[28]

From the late 16th century to the early 17th century,Spanish friars in the Philippines, such as theDominican Order andJesuits specifically inManila, produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century:^[30][16]

• Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China (1593), byMiguel de Benavides and Juan Cobo, a Hokkien version of theDoctrina Christiana.^{[31][17][32][13]}
• Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales (1593), byJuan Cobo, a mostlyClassical Chinese work written to transmitRoman Catholicism and western scientific knowledge toHokkienSangleyes.^[33][34]
• Espejo Rico del Claro Corazón—Beng Sim Po Cam (1590s), by Juan Cobo and Miguel de Benavides, a Hokkien book of proverbs and warnings from various texts for children's enlightenment and moral guidance.^[35][36]
• Dictionarium Sino Hispanicum (1604), byPedro Chirino^[37][38]
• Vocabulary & Grammar Chin-Cheu (1600s)^[39]
• Vocabulario de la Lengua Española y China / Vocabulario Hispanico y Chinico^[38]
• Bocabulario de la lengua sangleya por las letraz de el A.B.C. (1617), a Spanish-Hokkien dictionary, with definitions.^[38]
• Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620), a Spanish-Hokkien grammar book.^[15]
• Dictionario Hispánico-Sinicum (1626-1642), a primarily Spanish-Hokkien dictionary (with additional incompleteMandarin part), giving equivalent words, but not definitions.^[40][14]
• Vocabulario de letra china (1643), by Francisco Diaz^[38]

These texts appear to record a dialect descended primarily from a coastalChiangchiu (Zhangzhou) dialect of Hokkien, specifically modern-dayHaicheng (海澄;Hái-têng) from the area around the old port ofYuegang (an old initially illegal smuggling port that was later legalized in 1567 and is now part ofLonghai),^[11] but also with some attested features of the dialects ofChuanchiu (Quanzhou), such as fromAnhai (安海;Oaⁿ-hái)^[17] andTong'an (同安;Tâng-oaⁿ),^[17] andTeo-Swa as well, hence Klöter (2011) considers it to be acontact variety, known asEarly Manila Hokkien (EMH).^[16]Yuegang (月港;Goe̍h-káng), part ofZhangzhou Prefecture under the lateMing China andQing China used to be the Chinese terminus to and from SpanishManila, under theSpanish Empire, which was part of the main artery that linked the trans-Pacific trade carried by theManila galleon over thePacific toAcapulco inNew Spain (modern-dayMexico) of theSpanish Americas, that was also linked to the trans-Atlantic trade from the port ofVeracruz toSeville inSpain, spreading trade goods fromAsia across theAmericas and later acrossIberia andEurope. Later, the old port ofYuegang (月港;Goe̍h-káng) would be overshadowed and supplanted by thePort of Xiamen (廈門港;Ē-mn̂g Káng) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at theMing-Qing transition due to conflict between theMing/Southern Ming loyalist,Koxinga (國姓爺;Kok-sèng-iâ), and theQing forces.^{[citation needed]}

As a result as well of a1603 Sangley Rebellion and a1639 2nd Sangley Rebellion which both causedmassacres of ethnicSangleyChinese inManila orSouthern Luzon in general, the loss ofSpanish Formosa to theDutch in 1642, and the victory ofKoxinga (國姓爺;Kok-sèng-iâ) in 1662 against theDutch at theSiege of Fort Zeelandia inTaiwan, which caused the founding of theKingdom of Tungning,Koxinga would send anultimatum toSpanish Manila demanding to pay tribute to him or else he would send a fleet to conquer them and expel theSpaniards as well. TheSpanish took the threat very seriously and withdrew their forces from theMoluccas,Sulu, andMindanao to strengthenManila in preparation for an attack. There would be several raids acrossNorthern Luzon by Koxinga's forces. In the same year of 1662,Koxinga would suddenly die ofmalaria, only a few months after defeating theDutch, in a fit of madness and delirium after discovering that his son and heir,Zheng Jing, had an affair with hiswet nurse and conceived a child with her. A1662 Sangley Massacre would ensue due to these mounting events and manySangleyChinese fled by ship or to the mountains. Likewise during the 1700s, Spanish Dominican friar missionaries inAmoy/Xiamen would be severely persecuted in the region as well, but nevertheless continued to operate clandestinely.^[12]

TheSangleyChinese community in the Philippines would survive through the 1700s but intermix locally to createChinese Mestizos (Mestizos de Sangley) and be replenished by migrants fromAmoy/Xiamen andChinchew/Quanzhou. Some of whom even aided theBritish during theBritish occupation of Manila in 1762-1764. The Chinese Mestizo (Mestizos de Sangley) descendants throughout the centuries with each succeeding generation would gradually stop speaking Hokkien though in favor ofassimilating to the local mainstream languages of their time, especiallyTagalog andSpanish, such as in themestizo family ofPhilippine national hero,Jose Rizal. The Hokkien spoken across the Philippines throughout the past centuries introduced certain amounts ofHokkienloanwords toPhilippine Spanish and the majorlowland Austronesian languages of the Philippines, such asTagalog,Kapampangan,Cebuano Bisaya,Hiligaynon,Central Bicolano,Pangasinense,Ilocano,Waray-waray,Chavacano, etc. as a result of the generations ofintermarriage andassimilation. Those who chose to marryendogamously and retained speaking the language and as a result of gradual replenishment of migrants fromAmoy/Xiamen andChinchew/Quanzhou, especially relatives fromFujian,China of those already in the Philippines, throughout the centuries would later continue theSangleyChinese community in the Philippines that spoke Hokkien.

Later in the early 1800s, theSpanish Empire would also have its issues with conflicts and wars that would seriously destabilize it, starting with theNapoleonic Wars in Europe, and the numerous conflicts andwars of independence across the Spanish Americas, which eliminated theSpanish Americas as the center of theSpanish Empire.^{[citation needed]}

Around 1815, theManila–Acapulco galleon trade would finally cease when theMexican War of Independence broke out, which theFirst Mexican Empire would gain independence from theSpanish Empire by 1821. From then on 1821 to 1898, Spanish Philippines would be underdirect royal governance underMadrid inSpain.^{[citation needed]}

By 1832,Rev.Walter Henry Medhurst still noted in his Hokkien dictionary, originally as an account given byConrad Malte-Brun (1775-1826) on the province of Hok-këèn (Fujian), that^[41]

Tchang-chew-fou (Chëang-chew-hoó) [sic] is near theport of Emouy (Āy-moôiⁿᵍ) [sic], a great emporium of trāde, frequented by theSpaniards fromManilla [sic].

The Spanish trade withAmoy to and fromManila later grew nominal as a result of the above destabilizing conflicts cutting the empire in half. TheHokkien Chinese merchants fromAmoy andChinchew to and from Manila would later outcompete theSpaniards by the mid-1800s, as noted by theBritish, such asJames Matheson, co-founder ofJardine Matheson:^[42]

Amoy, a much more substantial port giving access to the tea-growing province of Fukien, was open to Spanish trade only. But the right was merely nominal because Chinese junks could transport goods to and from the Philippines much more cheaply than could the Spaniards. The latter had practically given up the trade; only one Spanish ship put in at Amoy between 1810 and 1830. ...Another witness said the Spaniards had given up the Amoy trade since 1800.

TheSuez Canal which would later linkSpanish Philippines directly toSpain inIberia without rounding thecape would only start construction by 1859 and be completed at 1869.^{[citation needed]}

By 1873,Rev.Carstairs Douglas writes in his Hokkien dictionary that^[43]

Singapore and the variousStraits Settlements [such asPenang andMalacca], Batavia [Jakarta] and other parts of theDutch possessions [Indonesia], are crowded with emigrants, especially from theChang-chew prefecture;Manila and other parts of thePhilippines have great numbers fromChin-chew, and emigrants are largely scattered in like manner in Siam [Thailand], Burmah [Myanmar], the Malay Peninsula [Peninsular Malaysia],Cochin China [Southern Vietnam], Saigon [Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam], &c. In many of these places there is also a great mixture of emigrants fromSwatow.

By 1883,Rev. John Macgowan also records 3 entries explicitly definingHokkienChinese:呂宋;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Lū-sòng;lit. 'Luzon' in his Hokkien dictionary:

Luzon, 呂宋 Lū-sòng,—belongs to Spain, 呂宋是大°呂宋之°屬國 Lū-sòng sī Tōa lū-sòng ê siók kok

Manilla [sic], 呂宋 Lū-sòng, very many Chinese go to—, 唐°人°去°呂宋盡多° tn̂g lâng khì Lū-sòng tsīn tsōe.

Philippines, 呂宋 Lū-sòng.

The Chinese community of the Philippines during theSpanish colonial era used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as "CalóChinoEspañol" or"La Lengua del Parian"^[47] inSpanish or "Kastilangtindahan" inTagalog, especially because the Chinese community before obligates Chinesecabecillas (community leaders), such as CapitanCarlos Palanca Tan Quien Sien, to teach rudimentarySpanish to new Chinese immigrants which was taught inChinese-owned schools. They could speak these Spanish pidgin varieties after one month which many, especially old timers later became very fluent, albeit some still with accented Spanish. Spanish was prevalent enough among the educated in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era, that Joseph Earle Stevens, an American that stayed in Manila from 1893-1894 had this to say in his book,"Yesterdays in the Philippines":^[48][49]

Spanish, of course, is the court and commercial language and, except among uneducated natives who have a lingo of their own or among the few members of the Anglo-Saxon colony, it has a monopoly everywhere. No one can really get on without it, andeven theChinese come in with their peculiar pidgin variety

By 1941, Vicente Lim publishes a dictionary in Manila, titled"Chinese-English-Tagalog-Spanish Business conversation and social contact with Amoy pronunciation" giving equivalent words in the stated 4 languages,^[18] where"Chinese" and"Amoy" referred to a formalized literary form of the localChuanchiu-basedHokkien as used by the author and theChinese Filipino community in thePhilippines at that time. As per Lim's dictionary,American English took precedence as consistent with theAmerican colonial era, whenEnglish along withSpanish began to be taught as theofficial language of thePhilippine Islands under theInsular Government, which later,Tagalog was chosen as the basis ofFilipino, thenational language of the Philippines under the1935 constitution of thePhilippine Commonwealth.

By 1987, under the current1987 constitution of the Philippines,Spanish began to only be "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis", leading to most schools in the Philippines to no longer teach Spanish as a requiredclass subject, which would most if not completely dissipate from mainstream use in later decades in the Philippines. The Spanish used decades before have been retained as a few Spanish loanwords in Philippine Hokkien, such as those found below.

In the 21st century, the Philippines now only has 2official languages,Filipino (Tagalog) andEnglish, with currently 19 recognizedregional languages, includingCebuano Bisaya,Hiligaynon, etc., which Philippine Hokkien speakers currently frequentlycodeswitch with, which the form usingFilipino (Tagalog) andEnglish together with Hokkien is known asHokaglish, akin toTaglish.^{[citation needed]}

From the 20th to the 21st century, there have been a few books published about Hokkien from the Philippines based on what is used at least by the author in the Philippines and many of whom have been utilizing theLatin script often together withChinese characters to try and write Hokkien based on the author's level ofliteracy onwritten Hokkien. Sometimes theChinese characters used in these 20th to 21st century books only use Chinese characters more appropriate toMandarinStandard Chinese, so it is mostly theRomanizedLatin script section that can be properly identified as Philippine Hokkien, although due to different author's level of literacy onwritten Hokkien, the orthographies of the romanization used may widely differ per author usually influenced by the author's knowledge ofEnglish orthography,Filipino orthography,MandarinPinyin orWade-Giles, andSpanish orthography (for older works). These 20th-21st century publications from the Philippines about Hokkien often also call theHokkien language with different names, such as"Chinese",^{[18][25][24][23][26]}"Amoy",^[18][27]"Fookien",^[24][23]"Fukien",^[7]"Fukienese",^[25] or even"Fujianwa"^[26] or"Foojian".^[26] There have been books as well in the Philippines writing inPe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ) for Hokkien in the Philippines, such as Victoria W. Peralta-Ang Gobonseng's"Amoy Vernacular Handbook" Vol. 1 Revised Edition (2003).^[27]

Hokkien in the Philippines has been used as aliturgical language inChristianity (bothRoman Catholicism andProtestant denominations),Chinese Buddhism,Taoism, andMatsu worship for centuries. ForRoman Catholic Christianity, it was used ever since theSpanish friars ministered toSangleyChinese around the 1590s to 1600s and beyond.^[17][11] For Buddhism, Taoism, and Matsu worship, it was used ever since the first Hokkien-speaking Sangley Chinese practitioners in the Philippines gathered together forliturgy or the first Buddhist, Taoist, and Ma-cho chinese temples were erected in the Philippines, such as theSeng Guan Temple,Ma-Cho Temple, etc.^[21] ForProtestant Christianity, it was used ever since ProtestantChinese Filipinos converted toProtestant denominations around the early 20th century when the first Protestant Chinese Filipino churches sprang up, such asSt. Stephen's Parish Church (forEpiscopalian Anglicanism) and theUnited Evangelical Church of the Philippines (UECP) (forPresbyterianEvangelicalism), etc.

In the 21st century,ProtestantChinese Filipino churches and schools usually conductliturgy usually called"Amoy Worship Service" or"Chinese Worship Service" where protestant Chinese Filipinopastors orreverends (HokkienChinese:牧師;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:bo̍k-su) usually conduct theirchurch service message in typically mostly Philippine Hokkien with added formal abstractliturgicalAmoy Hokkien terms or HokkienizedMandarin terms read in Philippine Hokkien reading and sometimes additionallyMandarin (i.e. somepraise and worship songs in certain churches). These Chinese Filipino protestant churches are usually linked toBSOP (Biblical Seminary of the Philippines) andCCOWE (Chinese Congress on World Evangelization) and their respectiveChinese Filipino schools that each Chinese Filipino church may also usually operate and sometimes also teach Hokkien usually known as"Amoy" or use it aslanguage of instruction to teach Mandarin, which is also typically known as just "Chinese" in school classes. These Protestant Chinese Filipino churches that also operate with a Chinese Filipino school usually within the same campus also sometimes ministerchurch or chapel service in"Amoy" (Hokkien) to their students too.^[20]

Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines also primarily conduct theirsutra chanting services and temple sermons in Hokkien via the venerable monks and nuns living in the temples across the Philippines. Many of the Chinese Buddhist monastics only speak Hokkien orMandarin (if recently came from China), though some can also speakEnglish, and rarely alsoFilipino (Tagalog). Some of the Chinese Buddhist temples are associated as well with theTzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan. Most Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines are rooted in theChineseMahāyāna tradition with some syncretizingTaoism, while also practicingConfucian principles. For example,Guandi or known in Hokkien as帝爺公;Tè-iâ-kong or關公;Koan-kong or關帝爺;Koan-tè-iâ, the Chinese God of War, is usually adoor god or a statue by the doors and entrances of Chinese Buddhist temples to serve as a symbolic protector. Some Chinese Buddhist temples also runChinese Filipino schools in the Philippines, such as the Samantabhadra Institute, Philippine Academy of Sakya, and Philippine Buddhacare Academy.^[21]

Roman Catholic Christianity in the Philippines used to also have Hokkien as one of the languages they used to conduct their liturgy in but its current use for ministry is now defunct, especially under the Chinese-Filipino Catholic Apostolate of theCatholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP). It has a long history in using Hokkien to minister toSangleyChinese living in the Philippines andFujian as evidenced in the works of theSpanish friars, such as theDoctrina Christiana en letra y lingua china (1593), who aimed to use the Sangley Chinese Catholic converts as a catalyst for converting the rest of China.^[17][11]

During the late 20th century, despiteStandard Chinese (Mandarin) taking the place as the usualChineseclass subject taught inChinese Filipino schools as the topic of study, some schools had Chinese teachers that usedAmoyHokkien asmedium of instruction in order to teachMandarin Chinese to native-Hokkien-speakingChinese Filipino students, but decades later around theMarcos Era, regulations became stricter and themedium of instruction for teachingStandard Chinese (Mandarin) in Chinese classes shifted fromAmoy Hokkien Chinese to purelyMandarin Chinese (or in some schools toEnglish). Also, due to the increased rural to urban migration of Chinese Filipinos, Chinese Filipino schools in urban areas increased but those in the provinces gradually declined, some closing down or some turning into ordinary Philippine schools, where some tried to preserve their "Chinese" characteristic by instead teachingHokkien as their Chineseclass subject, deeming it as more practical in the Philippine-Chinese setting.^[50]

As of 2019^[update], theAteneo de Manila University, under their Chinese Studies Programme, offers Hokkien 1 (Chn 8) and Hokkien 2 (Chn 9) as electives.^[51]Chiang Kai Shek College offers Hokkien classes in their CKS Language Center.^[52]

21st century Philippine Hokkien (咱人話;Lán-nâng-ōe) is largely derived from the CoastalQuanzhou (泉州;Choân-chiu)Hokkien dialects ofJinjiang (晉江;Chìn-kang), CoastalNan'an (海南安 / 下南安;Hái Lâm-oaⁿ / Ě Lâm-oaⁿ),Shishi (石狮;Chio̍h-sai),Quanzhou City Proper (泉州市;Choân-chiu),Hui’an (惠安;Hūi-oaⁿ), but has possibly also absorbed influences from the adjacentAmoy dialects ofXiamen (廈門;Ē-mn̂g), CoastalTong’an (同安;Tâng-oaⁿ),Kinmen (金門;Kim-mn̂g), HighlandNan'an (頂南安 / 山南安;Téng Lâm-oaⁿ / Soaⁿ Lâm-oaⁿ), InlandYongchun (永春;Éng-chhun), and InlandAnxi (安溪;An-khoe) dialects of Xiamen and HighlandQuanzhou respectively.^{[53][54][55][56]}

Meanwhile, the older late 16th to 17th century Early Manila Hokkien once spoken around theManila Bay area was largely derived from CoastalZhangzhou (漳州;Chiang-chiu) Hokkien dialects ofHaicheng (海澄;Hái-têng)^[17] andLongxi (龍溪;Liông-khe), with also some features from the CoastalQuanzhou (泉州;Choân-chiu)Hokkien dialects ofAnhai (安海;Oaⁿ-hái)^[17] andTong'an (同安;Tâng-oaⁿ).^[17] Haicheng and Longxi have since been merged by 1960 within modern-dayLonghai (龍海;Liông-hái) of CoastalZhangzhou (漳州;Chiang-chiu) on the mouth of theJiulong River (九龍江;Kiú-liông-kang) from where the old smuggling port ofYuegang (月港;Goe̍h-káng) used to operate from, before being overshadowed by thePort of Xiamen (廈門港;Ē-mn̂g Káng) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at theMing-Qing transition due to conflict between theMing loyalist,Koxinga (國姓爺;Kok-sèng-iâ), and theQing forces.

Although Philippine Hokkien is generally mutually comprehensible especially with otherQuanzhouHokkien variants, includingSingaporean Hokkien andQuanzhou-basedTaiwanese Hokkien variants, the local vocabulary,tones, andFilipino orPhilippine Spanish andEnglish loanwords as well as the extensive use ofcontractions andcolloquialisms (even those which are now unused or consideredarchaic ordated in China) can result in confusion among Hokkien speakers from outside of the Philippines.^{[citation needed]}

Some terms have contracted into one syllable. Examples include:^[18]

• dī-tsa̍p/lī-tsa̍p (二十) > dia̍p/lia̍p (廿 /廾): twenty; 20 (same format for 20–29, i.e. 二十一[21] is "dia̍p-it" 廿一)
• saⁿ-tsa̍p (三十) > sap^[g] (卅): thirty; 30 (same format for 30–39, i.e. 三十二[32] is "sa̍p-dī" 卅二)
• sì-tsa̍p (四十) > siap (卌): forty; 40 (same format for 40–49, i.e. 四十三[43] is "siap-saⁿ" 卌三)
• siáⁿ-lâng-á (啥人仔) > siâng-á (誰仔): who
• tsàiⁿ-iūⁿ-á (怎樣仔) > tsiùⁿ-á (障仔): how
• tán—tsi̍t-ě (等一下) > tán—tsě (等際): to wait

Philippine Hokkien, like other Southeast Asian variants of Hokkien (e.g.Singaporean Hokkien,Penang Hokkien,Johor Hokkien andMedan Hokkien), has borrowed words from other languages spoken locally, specificallySpanish,Tagalog andEnglish. Examples include:^[5][18]

• lé-chu-chhài/le˩tsu˧tsʰai˥˩/: "lettuce", from Spanishlechuga + Hokkien菜 (chhài, "vegetable")
• ka kaó: "cocoa", either from Spanishcacao or Tagalogkakaw
• ka-pé (咖啡): "coffee", from Tagalogkape, which was from Spanishcafé
• pà-chî (霸薯): "potato", either from Spanishpatata or Tagalogpatatas + Hokkien薯 (chî, "potato")
• kam-á-tit (柑仔得): "tomato", either from Tagalogkamatis or directly from Spanishtomate
• sap-bûn (雪文): "soap", either fromEarly Modern Spanishjabón^[h] or Tagalogsabon
• pá-lâ (把拉): "to pay", from Spanishpaga,inflection ofpagar
• lō͘-sin (落申): "dozen", from Englishdozen
• chi̍p-nî-chhia (集尼車), fromPhilippine Englishjeepney + Hokkien車 (chhia, "vehicle")
• go-ma-ôe: "rubber shoes (sneakers)", from Tagaloggoma or Spanishgoma + Hokkien鞋 (ôe, "shoe")
• go-ma-thn̂g: "bubblegum", from Tagaloggoma or Spanishgoma + Hokkien糖 (thn̂g, "candy")

Philippine Hokkien has alsocalqued a few expressions fromPhilippine English since theAmerican colonial era, such as

• Hó tsá-khí ! (好早起！):"Good Morning!"
• Hó àm-po͘ ! (好暗晡！) /Hó ě-po͘ ! (好下晡！):"Good Afternoon!"
• Hó àm-mî ! (好暗暝！):"Good Evening!"

Philippine Hokkien also has some vocabulary that is unique to it compared to other varieties of Hokkien:^[5][18]

• 車頭/tsʰia˧tʰau˩˧/: "chauffeur"
• 山猴/suã˧kau˩˧/: "country bumpkin"
• 新山/ɕin˧suã˧/,義山/ɡi˩san˧/: "cemetery" (used in the sign forManila Chinese Cemetery)
• 霸薯/pa˥˥˦tsi˨˦/: "potato"
• 麵頭/bin˩tʰau˨˦/: "bread"
• 病厝/pĩ˩tsʰu˦˩/: "hospital"
• 毋好/m̩˨ho˥˥˦/: "to be sick"
• 燒燒/ɕio˧ɕio˧/: "to have a fever"
• 桶/tʰaŋ˥˥˦/, short for面桶/bin˧tʰaŋ˥˥˦/: "million". in other Hokkien varieties,百萬/paʔ˥ban˥˩/ is used instead
• instead of just翕像/hip̚˨˦ɕiɔŋ˨/, there is also欱像/hap̚˨˦ɕiɔŋ˧/: "to photograph"
• instead of just有時陣/u˨ɕi˨t͡sun˥˩/. there is also有陣時/u˨t͡sun˨ɕi˨˦/ and,有陣仔/u˨t͡sun˨a˥˥˦/: "sometimes"
• 熱人/luaʔ˨laŋ˨˦/: "hot"(of the weather). in other Hokkien varieties, it means "summer"
• 寒人/kuã˨laŋ˨˦/: "cold"(of the weather). in other Hokkien varieties, it means "winter"

Philippine Hokkien usually follows the 3 decimal placeHindu-Arabic numeral system used worldwide, but still retains the concept of萬;bān; 'ten thousand' from theChinese numeral system, so 'ten thousand' would be一萬;chi̍t-bān, but examples of the 3 decimal place logic have produced words like:

• 'eleven thousand' –十一千;cha̍p-it-chheng, and same idea for succeeding numbers

  Other Hokkien variants:一萬一千;chi̍t-bān chi̍t-chheng

• 'one hundred thousand' –一百千;chi̍t-pah-chheng, and same idea for succeeding numbers

  Other Hokkien variants:十萬;cha̍p-bān

• 'one million' –一桶;chi̍t-tháng or一面桶;chi̍t-bīn-tháng, and same idea for succeeding numbers

  Other Hokkien variants:一百萬;chi̍t-pah-bān

• 'one hundred million' –一百桶;chi̍t-pah-tháng, and same idea for succeeding numbers

  Other Hokkien variants:一億;chi̍t-iak

Hokaglish iscode-switching involving Philippine Hokkien,Tagalog andEnglish. Hokaglish shows similarities toTaglish (mixedTagalog andEnglish), the everydaymesolect register of spokenFilipino language withinMetro Manila and its environs.^[22]

Both ways of speaking are very common among Chinese Filipinos, who tend to code-switch these languages in everyday conversation, where it can be observed that older generations typically use the Hokkien Chinese sentence structure base while injecting English and Tagalog words while the younger ones use the Filipino/Tagalog sentence structure as the base while injecting the few Hokkien terms they know in the sentence. The latter therefore, in a similar sense with Taglish usingTagalog grammar andsyntax, tends tocode-mix viaconjugating the Hokkien terms the way they do for Filipino/Tagalog words.^[57]

In otherprovinces/regions of the Philippines, a similar code-switching medium is also done with Philippine Hokkien and English, but instead of or along withTagalog, otherregional languages are used as well, such asCebuano Bisaya (akin toBislish),Hiligaynon/Ilonggo,Ilocano,Bikolano,Waray,Kapampangan,Pangasinense, etc., so inMetro Cebu,Chinese Filipino families speak acode-swtiching mix of Philippine Hokkien,Cebuano Bisaya, andPhilippine English, while inMetro Davao,Butuan, andCagayan de Oro (CDO), a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Cebuano Bisaya,Tagalog,Philippine English is used, while inIloilo andBacolod, a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), andPhilippine English is used, while inVigan andBaguio, a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Ilocano, andPhilippine English is used, while inTacloban, a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Waray, Philippine English is used, while inNaga, a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Central Bikolano, andPhilippine English is used, while inZamboanga City, a mix of Philippine Hokkien,Chavacano,Philippine English, and sometimesCebuano and/orTagalog are used.

• Hokkien architecture
• Hokkien culture
• Hokkien media
• Hoklo people
• Holopedia
• Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines
• Medan Hokkien
• Penang Hokkien
• Pe̍h-ōe-jī
• Singaporean Hokkien
• Southern Malaysia Hokkien
• Speak Hokkien Campaign
• Taiwanese Hokkien
• Taiwanese Romanization System
• Written Hokkien

• Klöter, Henning (2011).The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century. Brill.ISBN 978-90-04-18493-0. - An analysis and facsimile of theArte de la Lengua Chio-chiu (1620), the oldest extant grammar of Hokkien.
• Van der Loon, Piet (1966)."The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 1"(PDF).Asia Major. New Series.12:1–43. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on February 24, 2021. RetrievedAugust 8, 2020.
• Van der Loon, Piet (1967)."The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 2"(PDF).Asia Major. New Series.13:95–186. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on February 25, 2021. RetrievedAugust 8, 2020.

• Cobo, Juan;Benavides, Miguel de (1593).Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china (in Minnan and Spanish). Manila. Archived fromthe original on July 19, 2024 – viaUST Digital Library of theMiguel de Benavides Library and Archives. – Hokkien counterpart of the TagalogDoctrina Christiana.
• Cobo, Juan;Benavides, Miguel de (1593).Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china (in Minnan and Spanish). Manila. Archived fromthe original on March 21, 2023 – viaNational Taichung University of Education.
• Cobo, Juan (1593).Apología de la verdadera religión 天主教真傳實錄 (Veritable Record of the Catholic Tradition) (in Literary Chinese and Spanish). Manila – via Biblioteca Digital Hispánica of Catálogo BNE (Biblioteca Nacional de España).
• Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu (in Minnan and Spanish). Manila. 1620 – via Biblioteca Patrimonial Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona. – A manual for learning Hokkien written by a Spanish missionary in the Philippines.

• "Amoy Resources".BSOP Biblical Seminary of the Philippines. RetrievedApril 13, 2024.

• Hokkien-language dialects
• Chinese-Filipino culture
• Languages of the Philippines

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