Although his reign lasted only five years, it marked an unusually stable period in a century that is otherwise known for having been turbulent.[a][b] Near the end of his rule, Philip commemoratedRome's first millennium. In September 249 he was killed during or shortly after theBattle of Verona against the usurperTrajan Decius, who was subsequently recognized by the Senate as his successor.
Little is known about Philip's early life and political career. He was born in what is todayShahba,Syria, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast ofDamascus, inTrachonitis.[6] His birth city, later renamed Philippopolis, lay withinAurantis, an Arab district which at the time was part of theRoman province ofArabia Petraea.[7] Most historians accept that Philip was, indeed, an ethnicArab.[7][8][9][10][11] He was the son of a local citizen,Julius Marinus, possibly of some importance.[12] Allegations from later Roman sources (Historia Augusta andEpitome de Caesaribus) that Philip had a very humble origin or even that his father was a leader of brigands are not accepted by modern historians.[13] His birth date is not recorded by contemporary sources, but the 7th-centuryChronicon Paschale records that he died at the age of 45.[14]
The rise to the purple of theSeverans from nearbyEmesa is noted as a motivational factor in Philip's own ascent, due to geographic and ethnic similarity between himself and theEmesan emperors.[c][d]
Philip's rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus, who was an important official under the emperorGordian III.[12] His big break came in 243, during Gordian III's campaign againstShapur I of Persia, when thePraetorian prefectTimesitheus died under unclear circumstances.[20] At the suggestion of his brother Priscus, Philip became the new Praetorian prefect, with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents.[12] Following amilitary defeat, Gordian III died in February 244 under circumstances that are still debated. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts (including one coming from the Persian point of view) state that Gordian died in battle.[20][6][21] Whatever the case, Philip assumed thepurple robe following Gordian's death.
Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return toRome in order to secure his position with theSenate.[6] However, his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur, and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation.[6][22] Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory, the actual terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been.[22] He paid 500,000 denarii to the Sasanian Empire[23] and ceded Armenia and Mesopotamia to them.[24] Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians (pax fundata cum Persis).[22]
Coin ofSevera. Legend: ΜΑΡ. ΩΤΑΚΙΛ. CEOΥHPAN CEB. / ZEYΓMATEΩN. Greek inscription inACC for MAR. OTACIL. SEVERAMAVG. / (of) citizens ofZEVGMA.
Leading his army back up theEuphrates, south ofCircesium Philip erected acenotaph in honor of Gordian III, but his ashes were sent ahead to Rome, where he arranged for Gordian III's deification.[6][25] Whilst inAntioch, he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces, with the title ofrector Orientis.[6][22][12] Moving westward, he gave his brother-in-law Severianus control of the provinces ofMoesia andMacedonia.[26] He arrived in Rome in the late summer of 244, where he was confirmedaugustus.[6] Before the end of the year, he nominated his young soncaesar (heir), his wife,Marcia Otacilia Severa, was namedaugusta, and he also deified his father Marinus, even though the latter had never been emperor.[22] While in Rome, Philip also claimed a victory over the Persians with the titles ofPersicus Maximus,Parthicus Maximus andParthicusAdiabenicus (the latter probably unofficially).[27]
In an attempt to shore up his regime, Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate, and from the beginning of his reign, he reaffirmed the old Roman virtues and traditions.[22] He quickly ordered an enormous building program in his home town, renaming itPhilippopolis, and raising it to civic status, while he populated it with statues of himself and his family.[25] He also introduced the Actia-Dusaria Games inBostra, capital of Arabia. This festival combined the worship ofDushara, the main Nabataean deity, with commemoration of theBattle of Actium, as part of theRoman Imperial cult.[28]
The creation of the new city of Philippopolis, piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Persians, as well as the necessarydonativum to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession, made Philip desperately short of money.[25] To pay for it, he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation, while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of theDanube that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers.[29] Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign.[30]
In 245, Philip was forced to leave Rome as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death, Gordian's defeat in the east and Philip's decision to cease paying the subsidies.[6][30] TheCarpi moved throughDacia, crossed theDanube and emerged inMoesia where they threatened theBalkans.[31] Establishing his headquarters inPhilippopolis inThrace, he pushed the Carpi across the Danube and chased them back into Dacia, so that by the summer of 246, he claimed victory against them, along with the title "Carpicus Maximus".[32][33] In the meantime, theArsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Persian king Shapur I, and war with Persia flared up again by 245.[30]
Medallion commemorating Rome's millennium. Legend:concordia augustorum / saeculum novum ("harmony of the emperors, new era").
Nevertheless, Philip was back in Rome by August 247, where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign – theLudi Saeculares, which coincided with the one thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome.[32] So in April 248 AD (April 1001A.U.C.), Philip had the honor of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rome, which according to the empire's officialVarronian chronology wasfounded on 21 April 753 BC byRomulus.
Commemorative coins, such as the one illustrated at left, were issued in large numbers and, according to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games,ludi saeculares, and theatrical presentations throughout the city.[34] In theColosseum, in what had been originally prepared for Gordian III's plannedRoman triumph over the Persians,[35] more than 1,000gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos, leopards, lions, giraffes, and one rhinoceros.[36] The events were also celebrated in literature, with several publications, includingAsinius Quadratus'History of a Thousand Years, specially prepared for the anniversary.[12] At the same time, Philip elevated his son to the rank of co-augustus.[12]
Despite the festive atmosphere, there were continued problems in the provinces. In late 248, the legions ofPannonia andMoesia, dissatisfied with the result of the war against the Carpi, rebelled and proclaimedTiberius Claudius Pacatianus emperor.[12] The resulting confusion tempted theQuadi and otherGermanic tribes to cross the frontier and raid Pannonia.[32] At the same time, theGoths invaded Moesia and Thrace across theDanube frontier, and laid siege toMarcianopolis,[37] as the Carpi, encouraged by the Gothic incursions, renewed their assaults in Dacia and Moesia.[32] Meanwhile, in the East,Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule ofPriscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces.[12][26] Other usurpers, likeMarcus Silbannacus are reported to have started rebellions without much success.[12]
Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers, Philip offered to resign, but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor, with a certainGaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators.[38] Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces. This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions.[38][32]
Although Decius managed to quell the revolt, discontent in the legions was growing.[30] Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rome.[38][12] Yet even before he had left the region, the situation for Philip had turned even more sour. Financial difficulties had forced him to debase theantoninianus, as rioting began to occur in Egypt, causing disruptions to Rome's wheat supply and further eroding Philip's support in the capital.[39]
Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip,[38] Philip's army met the usurper near modernVerona that summer. Decius easily won thebattle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249,[40][39] either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler.[12] Philip's eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace.[40]
Some later traditions, first mentioned by the historianEusebius in hisEcclesiastical History, held that Philip was the firstChristian Roman Emperor. According to Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. VI.34), Philip was a Christian, but was not allowed to enter Easter vigil services until he confessed his sins and was ordered to sit among the penitents, which he did willingly. Later versions located this event inAntioch.[12]
However, historians generally identify the laterEmperor Constantine, baptized on his deathbed, as the first Christian emperor, and generally describe Philip's adherence to Christianity as dubious, because non-Christian writers do not mention the fact, and because throughout his reign, Philip to all appearances (coinage, etc.) continued to follow thestate religion.[41] Critics ascribe Eusebius' claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians.
^"The five years of Philip's reign were a time of uncommon stability and repose in a century notorious for turbulence".[3]
^"Philip's reign was brief – just five years – but it was a stable one in the unstable third century."[4]
^"Severus deserves the ultimate credit for making possible the emergence of a figure such as Philip".[7]
^"The spectacle of Arab and half-Arab emperors from neighboring Emesa must have left a deep impression on Marcus Julius Philippus."[16]
^The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described: Philip the Arab is kneeling, asking for peace, and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Šāpur. Consequently, the relief must be made after 260 AD. "[17]
^"(...) while another figure, probably Philip the Arab, kneels, and the Sasanian king holds the ill-fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist."[18]
^"He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh-i Rustam and on the Ka'aba-i Zardušt near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis, preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors, one kneeling (probably Philip the Arab, also defeated by Shapur) and the second (Valerian), uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king."[19]
^Kia, Mehrdad (2016).The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 274.ISBN978-1610693912.
^Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. p. 35.ISBN978-0521521574.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica."Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".iranicaonline.org. Retrieved4 April 2025.Probably because it was primarily a ceremonial coin, the dinar is hardly attested in Iranian literary sources; nevertheless, in the trilingual inscription of Šāpūr I (240-70; ŠKZ, Parth. l. 4) it is mentioned that after the victory of the Sasanians at Misikhe (Pērōz-Šābuhr) the Romans had to pay the sum of 500,000 dinars (dynr, Gk.dinaríon) as ransom for the life of the emperor Philip the Arab and his family, a sum that Ernest Honigmann and André Maricq (p. 122) considered modest.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica."Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".iranicaonline.org. Retrieved4 April 2025.All say that Philip then swore friendship or made "a most shameful treaty" with Šāpur and ended the war. He even ceded Armenia and Mesopotamia
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