| Phallus indusiatus | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Basidiomycota |
| Class: | Agaricomycetes |
| Order: | Phallales |
| Family: | Phallaceae |
| Genus: | Phallus |
| Species: | P. indusiatus |
| Binomial name | |
| Phallus indusiatus Vent. (1798) | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
Phallus indusiatus | |
|---|---|
 | Glebalhymenium |
 | Cap isconical |
 | Spore print isolive |
 | Ecology issaprotrophic |
 | Edibility ischoice |
Phallus indusiatus, commonly called thebasket stinkhorn,bamboo mushrooms,bamboo pith,long net stinkhorn,crinoline stinkhorn,bridal veil, orveiled lady, is afungus in the familyPhallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has acosmopolitan distribution intropical areas, and is found in southern Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where it grows in woodlands and gardens in rich soil and well-rotted woody material. Thefruit body of the fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on astalk and a delicate lacy "skirt", orindusium, that hangs from beneath the cap and reaches nearly to the ground. First described scientifically in 1798 by French botanistÉtienne Pierre Ventenat, the species has often been referred to a separate genusDictyophora along with otherPhallus species featuring an indusium.P. indusiatus can be distinguished from other similar species by differences indistribution, size, color, and indusium length.
Mature fruit bodies are up to 25 centimetres (10 inches) tall with a conical to bell-shapedcap that is 1.5–4 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄2 in) wide. The cap is covered with a greenish-brownspore-containing slime, which attracts flies and other insects that eat the spores and disperse them. Anedible mushroom featured as an ingredient in Chinesehaute cuisine, it is used instir-fries and chicken soups. The mushroom, grown commercially and commonly sold inAsian markets, is rich inprotein,carbohydrates, anddietary fiber. The mushroom also contains variousbioactive compounds, and hasantioxidant andantimicrobial properties.P. indusiatus has arecorded history of use inChinese medicine extending back to the 7th centuryCE, and features in Nigerian folklore.
Phallus indusiatus was initially described by French naturalistÉtienne Pierre Ventenat in 1798,[2] andsanctioned under that name byChristiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801.[3] One author anonymously gave his impressions of Ventenat's discovery in an 1800 publication:
This beautiful species, which is sufficiently characterised to distinguish it from every other individual of the class, is copiously produced in Dutch Guiana, about 300 paces from the sea, and nearly as far from the left bank of the river of Surinam. It was communicated to me by the elder Vaillant,[N 1] who discovered it in 1755 on some raised ground which was never overflowed by the highest tides, and is formed of a very fine white sand, covered with a thin stratum of earth. The prodigious quantity of individuals of this species which grow at the same time, the very different periods of their expansion, the brilliancy and the varied shades of their colours, present a prospect truly picturesque.[4]
The fungus was later placed in a new genus,Dictyophora, in 1809 byNicaise Auguste Desvaux;[5] it was then known for many years asDictyophora indusiata.[6]Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck placed the species inHymenophallus in 1817, asH. indusiatus.[7] Both genera were eventually returned tosynonyms ofPhallus and the species is now known again by its original name.[1][6]
Curtis Gates Lloyd described thevarietyrochesterensis in 1909, originally as a new species,Phallus rochesterensis. It was found inKew, Australia.[8] Aform with a pink-coloured indusium was reported byVincenzo de Cesati in 1879 asHymenophallus roseus, and later calledDictyophora indusiata f. rosea byYosio Kobayasi in 1965;[9] it is synonymous withPhallus cinnabarinus.[10] A taxon described in 1936 asDictyophora lutea[11] and variously known for years asDictyophora indusiata f. lutea,D. indusiata f. aurantiaca, orPhallus indusiatus f. citrinus, was formally transferred toPhallus in 2008 as a distinct species,Phallus luteus.[12]
Thespecific epithet is theLatin adjectiveindūsǐātus, "wearing an undergarment".[13] The former generic nameDictyophora is derived from theAncient Greek wordsδίκτυον (diktyon, "net"), andφέρω (pherō, "to bear"), hence "bearing a net".[5][14]Phallus indusiatus has manycommon names based on its appearance, including long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn,[15] basket stinkhorn,[16] bridal veil fungus,[17] and veiled lady. TheJapanese nameKinugasatake (衣笠茸 or キヌガサタケ), derived from the wordkinugasa, refers to the wide-brimmed hats that featured a hanging silk veil to hide and protect the wearer's face.[18] AChinese common name that alludes to its typical growth habitat is "bamboo mushroom" (simplified Chinese:竹荪;traditional Chinese:竹蓀;pinyin:zhúsūn).[19]
Immature fruit bodies ofP. indusiatus are initially enclosed in an egg-shaped to roughly spherical subterranean structure encased in aperidium. The "egg" ranges in color from whitish tobuff to reddish-brown, measures up to6 centimetres (2+1⁄4 inches) in diameter, and usually has a thickmycelial cord attached at the bottom.[16] As the mushroom matures, the pressure caused by the enlargement of the internal structures cause the peridium to tear and the fruit body rapidly emerges from the "egg". The mature mushroom is up to 25 cm (10 in) tall and girded with a net-like structure called theindusium (or less technically a "skirt") that hangs down from the conical to bell-shaped cap. The netlike openings of the indusium may be polygonal or round in shape.[20] Well-developed specimens have an indusium that reaches to thevolva and flares out somewhat before collapsing on the stalk.[21] The cap is1.5–4 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄2 in) wide and its reticulated (pitted and ridged) surface is covered with a layer of greenish-brown and foul-smelling slime, thegleba, which initially partially obscures the reticulations. The top of the cap has a small hole.[16] Thestalk is 7–25 cm (3–10 in) long,[20] and1.5–3 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄4 in) thick. The hollow stalk is white, roughly equal in width throughout its length, sometimes curved, and spongy. The ruptured peridium remains as a loose volva at the base of the stalk.[16] Fruit bodies develop during the night,[22] and require 10–15 hours to fully develop after emerging from the peridium.[23] They are short-lived, typically lasting no more than a few days.[22] At that point the slime has usually been removed by insects, leaving the pale off-white, bare cap surface exposed.[20]Spores ofP. indusiatus are thin-walled, smooth, elliptical or slightly curved,hyaline (translucent), and measure 2–3 by 1–1.5 μm.[24]
Phallus multicolor is similar in overall appearance, but it has a more brightly coloured cap, stem and indusium, and it is usually smaller. It is found in Australia, Guam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Papua New Guinea, Zaire, and Tobago[25] as well as Hawaii. The cap of the Indo-Pacific speciesP. merulinus appears smooth when covered with gleba, and is pale and wrinkled once the gleba has worn off. In contrast, the cap surface ofP. indusiatus tends to have conspicuous reticulations that remain clearly visible under the gleba. Also, the indusium ofP. merulinus is more delicate and shorter than that ofP. indusiatus, and is thus less likely to collapse under its own weight.[26] Common in eastern North America and Japan, and widely recorded in Europe,[27] the speciesP. duplicatus has a smaller indusium that hangs3–6 cm (1+1⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) from the bottom of the cap, and sometimes collapses against the stalk.[28]
Found in Asia, Australia, Hawaii, southern Mexico, and Central and South America,[10]P. cinnabarinus grows to 13 cm (5 in) tall, and has a more offensive odor thanP. indusiatus. It attracts flies from the genusLucilia (familyCalliphoridae), rather than the house flies of the genusMusca that visitP. indusiatus.[29]P. echinovolvatus, described from China in 1988, is closely related toP. indusiatus, but can be distinguished by its volva that has a spiky (echinulate) surface, and its higher preferred growth temperature of 30 to 35 °C (86 to 95 °F).[30]P. luteus, originally considered a form ofP. indusiatus, has a yellowish reticulate cap, a yellow indusium, and a pale pink to reddish-purple peridium and rhizomorphs. It is found in Asia and Mexico.[12]
The range ofPhallus indusiatus istropical, including Africa (Congo,[21] Nigeria,[31] Uganda,[32] and Zaire[33]) South America (Brazil[24] Guyana,[34] and Venezuela[35]), Central America (Costa Rica),[36] and Tobago.[37] In North America, its range is restricted to Mexico.[38] Asian localities include Indonesia, Nepal, Malaysia,[39] India,[8] Southern China, Japan,[22] and Taiwan.[40] It has also been collected in Australia.[41]
Like allPhallus species,P. indusiatus issaprobic—deriving nutrients from breaking down wood and plant organic matter. The fruit bodies grow singly or in groups indisturbed ground and among wood chips. In Asia, it grows amongbamboo forests, and typically fruits after heavy rains.[22][42] The method of reproduction for stinkhorns, includingP. indusiatus, is different from mostagaric mushrooms, whichforcibly eject their spores. Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass that has a sharp, sickly-sweet odor ofcarrion.[43] The cloying stink of mature fruit bodies—detectable from a considerable distance—is attractive to certain insects.[22] Species recorded visiting the fungus includestingless bees of the genusTrigona,[44] and flies of the familiesDrosophilidae andMuscidae. Insects assist in spore dispersal by consuming the gleba and depositing excrement containing intact spores togerminate elsewhere.[22] Although the function of the indusium is not known definitively, it may visually entice insects not otherwise attracted by the odour, and serve as a ladder for crawling insects to reach the gleba.[45]
In eastern Asia,P. indusiatus is considered a delicacy and anaphrodisiac.[46] Previously only collected in the wild, where it is not abundant, it was difficult to procure. The mushroom's scarcity meant that it was usually reserved for special occasions. In the time of China'sQing dynasty, the species was collected inYunnan Province and sent to theImperial Palaces to satisfy the appetite ofEmpress Dowager Cixi, who particularly enjoyed meals containing edible fungi.[47] It was one of the eight featured ingredients of the "Bird's Nest Eight Immortals Soup" served at a banquet to celebrate her 60th birthday. This dish, served by descendants of theConfucius family in celebrations and longevity banquets, contained ingredients that were "all precious food, delicacies from land and sea, fresh, tender, and crisp, appropriately sweet and salty".[48] Another notable use was a state banquet held for American diplomatHenry Kissinger on hisvisit to China to reestablishdiplomatic relations in the early 1970s.[49] One source writes of the mushroom: "It has a fine and tender texture, fragrance and is attractive, beautiful in shape, fresh and crispy in taste."[50] The dried fungus, commonly sold inAsian markets, is prepared by rehydrating and soaking or simmering in water until tender.[51] Sometimes used instir-frys, it is traditionally used as a component of rich chicken soups.[52] The rehydrated mushroom can also be stuffed and cooked.[53]
Phallus indusiatus has beencultivated on a commercial scale in China since 1979.[49] In theFujian Province of China—known for a thriving mushroom industry that cultivates 45 species of edible fungi—P. indusiatus is produced in thecounties ofFuan,Jianou, andNingde.[54] Advances in cultivation have made the fungus cheaper and more widely available; in 1998, about 1,100 metric tons (1,100 long tons; 1,200 short tons) were produced in China.[15] The Hong Kong price for a kilogram of dried mushrooms reached around US $770 in 1982, but had dropped to US $100–200 by 1988. Additional advances led to it dropping further to US $10–20 by 2000.[49] The fungus is grown on agricultural wastes—bamboo-trash sawdust covered with a thin layer of non-sterilised soil. The optimal temperature for the growth of mushroomspawn and fruit bodies is about 24 °C (75 °F), with arelative humidity of 90–95%.[55] Othersubstrates that can be used for the cultivation of the fungus include bamboo leaves and small stems,soybean pods or stems, corn stems, andwillow leaves.[56]
 | This sectionneeds morereliable medical references forverification or relies too heavily onprimary sources, specifically: Claims are a little too strong. Should at least mention whether it has been found to help with anything in humans in aMEDRS. Parts relating to the enzyme inhibitor, the RNAse, & the antimicrobial should get a new "food industry / biotechnology" sort of section.. Please review the contents of the section andadd the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged andremoved.Find sources: "Phallus indusiatus" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(December 2023) |  |
Medicinal properties have been ascribed toPhallus indusiatus from the time of the ChineseTang dynasty when it was described inpharmacopoeia. The fungus was used to treat manyinflammatory,stomach, andneural diseases. Southern China'sMiao people continue to use it traditionally for a number of afflictions, including injuries and pains, cough,dysentery,enteritis,leukemia, andfeebleness, and it has been prescribed clinically as a treatment forlaryngitis,leucorrhea, fever, andoliguria (low urine output),diarrhea,hypertension, cough,hyperlipidemia, and in anticancer therapy.[57] Modern science has probed the biochemical basis of these putative medicinal benefits.
The fruit bodies of the fungus containbiologically activepolysaccharides. Aβ-D-glucan called T-5-N and prepared fromalkaline extracts[58] has been shown to haveanti-inflammatory properties.[59] Its chemical structure is a linear chain backbone made largely of α-1→3 linkedD-mannopyranosyl residues, with traces of 1→6 linkedD-mannopyrosyl residues.[60] The polysaccharide has tumour-suppressing activity againstsubcutaneously implantedsarcoma 180 (a transplantable,non-metastasizing connective tissuetumour often used in research) in mice.[59][61]
Another chemical of interest found inP. indusiatus ishydroxymethylfurfural,[62] which has attracted attention as atyrosinase inhibitor. Tyrosinase catalyzes the initial steps ofmelanogenesis in mammals, and is responsible for the undesirablebrowning reactions in damaged fruits during post-harvest handling and processing,[63] and its inhibitors are of interest to the medical, cosmetics, and food industries. Hydroxymethylfurfural, which occurs naturally in several foods, is not associated with serious health risks.[62]P. indusiatus also contains a uniqueribonuclease (anenzyme that cutsRNA into smaller components) possessing several biochemical characteristics that differentiate it from other known mushroom ribonucleases.[64]
Two novelsesquiterpenes,dictyophorine A and B, have been identified from the fruit bodies of the fungus. These compounds, based on the eudesmane skeleton (a common structure found in plant-derived flavours and fragrances), are the first eudesmanederivatives isolated from fungi and were found to promote the synthesis ofnerve growth factor inastroglial cells.[65] Related compounds isolated and identified from the fungus include threequinazoline derivatives (a class of compounds rare in nature), dictyoquinazol A, B, and C.[66] These chemicals were shown in laboratory tests to have a protective effect oncultured mouseneurons that had been exposed toneurotoxins.[67] Atotal synthesis for the dictyoquinazols was reported in 2007.[68]
The fungus has long been recognised to haveantibacterial properties: the addition of the fungus to soup broth was known to prevent it from spoiling for several days.[69] One of the responsible antibiotics,albaflavenone, was isolated in 2011. It is asesquiterpenoid that was already known from the soil bacteriumStreptomyces albidoflavus.[69] Experiments have shown that extracts ofP. indusiatus haveantioxidant in addition toantimicrobial properties in chemical assays.[70]
A 2001 publication in theInternational Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms attempted to determine its efficacy as anaphrodisiac. In the trial involving sixteen women, six self-reported the experience of a mild orgasm while smelling the fruit body, and the other ten, who received smaller doses, self-reported an increasedheart rate. All of the twenty men tested considered the smell displeasing. The study used fruit bodies found in Hawaii, not the edible variety cultivated in China.[71] The study has received criticism. A way to achieve instant orgasms would be expected to gain much attention and many attempts to reproduce the effect, but none has succeeded. No major science journal has published the study, and there are no studies where the results have been reproduced.[72][73]
According to ethnomycologistR. Gordon Wasson,P. indusiatus was consumed in Mexicandivinatory ceremonies on account of its suggestive shape. On the other side of the globe,New Guinea natives consider the mushroom sacred.[74] In Nigeria, the mushroom is one of several stinkhorns given the nameAkufodewa by theYoruba people. The name is derived from a combination of theYoruba wordsku ("die"),fun ("for"),ode ("hunter"), andwa ("search"), and refers to how the mushroom's stench can attract hunters who mistake its odour for that of a dead animal.[75] The Yoruba have been reported to have used it as a component of acharm to make hunters less visible in times of danger. In other parts of Nigeria, they have been used in the preparation of harmful charms by ethnic groups such as theUrhobo and theIbibio people. TheIgbo people of east-central Nigeria called stinkhornséró ḿma, from theIgbo words for "mushroom" and "beauty".[31]
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