A vintage photo postcard of the main street, Peshawar. Digitized byPanjab Digital Library.
The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" (Sanskrit:पुरूषपुरPuruṣapura, meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha").[21][22][23] It was named so byMughal Emperor Akbar from its old nameParashawar, the meaning of which Akbar did not understand.[24][25] The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hinduraja named Purush; the wordpur means "city" in Sanskrit.[26][27][28] Sanskrit, written in theKharosthi script, was the literary language (along withGandhari Prakrit) employed by theBuddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period.[29] The city's name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers,"Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar.[30]
Chinese Buddhist monkXuanzang's seventh-century account of a city in Gandhara called the cityPo-la-sha-pu-lo (Chinese: 布路沙布邏,bùlùshābùló), and an earlier fifth-century account byFaxian records the city's name asFou-lou-sha (Chinese: 弗樓沙,fùlóushā), the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura.[31][32] An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the namepskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar.[33]
The Arab historian and geographeral-Masudi noted that by the mid-tenth century, the city was known asParashāwar. The name was noted to bePurshawar andPurushavar byal-Biruni.[34]
The city began to be known asPeshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar.[35] The current name is said by some to have been based upon thePersian word for "frontier town"[35] or, more literally, "forward city", though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city", as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing theKhyber Pass.[36][37] Akbar's bibliographer,Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the city's name as bothParashāwar, transcribed in Persian asپَرَشَاوَر,[38] andPeshāwar (پشاور).[39]
Peshawar was established as the city ofPuruṣapura,[21][40][41] on the Gandhara Plains in the broadValley of Peshawar, after the 100 CE.[42][43] It may have been named after a Hindu raja, who ruled the city, who was known as Purush.[26] The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE,[44] near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati, near present-dayCharsadda.[45][23][46]
The nearbyTakht-i-Bahi monastery was established in 46 CE,[50] and was once a major centre of Buddhist learning.
Following theSeleucid–Mauryan war, the region was ceded to theMauryan Empire in 303 BCE.[51] Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historianMegasthenes noted that Purushapura was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire's capital atPataliputra, near the city ofPatna in the modern-day Indian state ofBihar.[51][52]
As Mauryan power declined, theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized the region around 190 BCE.[50] The city was then captured byGondophares, founder of theIndo-Parthian Kingdom. Gondophares established the nearbyTakht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE.[50]
In the first century CE, Purushapura came under control ofKujula Kadphises, founder of theKushan Empire.[53] It was made the empire's winter capital.[54] The Kushan's summer capital atKapisi (modernBagram,Afghanistan)[55] was seen as the secondary capital of the empire,[54] while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital.[54] Ancient Peshawar's population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time.[56][44] As a devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grandKanishkaMahavihara monastery.[57] After his death, the magnificentKanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king,Vasudeva I.
Around 260 CE, the armies of theSasanid EmperorShapur I launched an attack against Peshawar,[58] and severely damaged Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar.[44] Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery.[44] The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled,[59] as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city.[44]
Kushan EmperorKanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion,[44] but the city was then captured by the Central AsianKidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE.[60]
TheWhite Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE,[61] and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries.[62] The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base,[54] and crowned with a 13-layer copper-gildedchatra.[54] In the 400s CE, theChinese BuddhistpilgrimFaxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" inthe "terrestrial world",[54] which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall,[54] though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft (120 m).[54]
In 520 CE the Chinese monkSong Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it was in conflict with nearbyKapisa.[63][64] The Chinese monk and travelerXuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE,[65] afterKapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin[66]—although some monks studyingTheravada Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins.[67] Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital.[62]
Until the mid-seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar were ruled byKabul Shahis, who were then displaced by theHindu Shahis of Kabul.[63] Islam is believed to have been first introduced to theBuddhist,Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century.
In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred whenSabuktigin invaded the area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal.[35]
On 28 November 1001, Sabuktigin's sonMahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army ofRaja Jayapala, son of Anandpal, at theBattle of Peshawar,[68] and established rule of theGhaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region. During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city ofLahore.[35] During the tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for HinduNath Panthi Yogis,[55] who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics.[55]
As the first Pashtun tribe to settle in the region, theDilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar,[69] and are believed to have settled regions up to theIndus River by the 11th century.[69] The Arab historian and geographeral-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known asParashāwar.
In 1179–80,Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of theMongols.[35] Peshawar was an important regional centre under theLodi dynasty ofDelhi Sultanate.
Several other Pashtun tribe began settling rural regions around Peshawar in the late 15th and 16th centuries.[70] The Ghoryakhel and KhashiKhel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city ofMardan.[70]Hindko continued to be the language of trade and business in the city.[64]
Bestowed by Mohabbat Khan, the Mughal governor in 1630, the white-marble façade of theMohabbat Khan Mosque is one of Peshawar's most iconic sights.
In July 1526, EmperorBabur captured Peshawar.[71] During Babur's rule, the city was known asBegram, and he rebuilt the city's fort.[72] Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns.[73] Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia duringMughal period. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes.[74] Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586.[74] Under the reign of Babur's son,Humayun, direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king,Sher Shah Suri, who began construction of the famousGrand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign ofAkbar.[75]
Peshawar was an important trading centre on the Grand Trunk Road.[52] During Akbar's rule, the name of the city changed fromBegram toPeshawar.[35] In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership ofBayazid Pir Roshan,[76] founder of the egalitarianRoshani movement, who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587.[76]
Peshawar was bestowed with its own set ofShalimar Gardens during the reign ofShah Jahan,[77] which no longer exist. EmperorAurangzeb's governor of Kabul, Mohabbat Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famousMohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630.[35]
Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667,[74] and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearbyAttock.[74]Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s.[74] The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearbyKhyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes.[78] Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674.[74]
Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his sonBahadur Shah I, former governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened.[79]
In the following year Ahmad Shah agin occupied the city. Under the reign of his sonTimur Shah, the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced,[35][91] with the practice maintained until theSikh invasion.[92] Peshawar'sBala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade betweenBukhara and India by British explorerWilliam Moorcroft during the late 1700s.[93] Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit.[93]
Timur Shah's grandson,Mahmud Shah Durrani, became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother,Shah Shuja Durrani.[94] Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape.[94] In 1809, the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans.[94] His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with theBarakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until theBattle of Nowshera in March 1823.[94]
Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals.[95][96] Following the Sikh victory againstAzim Khan at the Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor.[96][95] By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorerAlexander Burnes to have sharply declined,[93] with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields.[93]
Much of Peshawar's caravan trade fromKabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces,[93] as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces.[93] Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute,[93] while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India.[93] Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenaryPaolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.[97]
The Sikh Empire formallyannexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies ofHari Singh Nalwa[95]—bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire'sLahore Durbar.[95] An 1835 attempt byDost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy the city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses.[98] Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remainingGurdwaras were built byHari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs.[99] The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city.[94]
Following the defeat of the Sikhs in theFirst Anglo-Sikh War in 1845–46 and theSecond Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the BritishEast India Company. The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule.[93] During theSepoy Rebellion of 1857, the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;[100] the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.[100]
The British laid out the vastPeshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.[101] Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.[97] British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by SirMortimer Durand, foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaborativelydemarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan.
Communal riots broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annualHindu festival ofHoli coincided withBarawafat, the annualMuslim day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds oflooted businesses and injuries.[b][104] A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of the city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura.[c] On 21 March 1910, however, rumors ofmusicians fromAmritsar and a dancing boy fromHaripur being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping theprocession.[d] Despite Muslim and Hinducommunity leaders calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at the Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession wasen route toDargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee, with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob.[e]Riots ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlyingtribal regions who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting "Maro Hindu Ko" (Kill the Hindus).[f] Estimates detail the riots resulted in a total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries.[104]
Edwardes College was built during the British-era, and is now one of Peshawar's most prestigious educational institutions.
Peshawar emerged as a centre for bothHindkowan andPashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, known asPeshoris, were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.[105] Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led byGhaffar Khan, a disciple ofMahatma Gandhi. In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of theBritish Indian Armyopened fire on the demonstrators.[106]
In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. Thepartition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar, weakening the historical presence of Hindko language in the city.[107][108][109] TheUniversity of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into the university.[110] Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for aCIA operation to spy on theSoviet Union, with the1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famousHippie trail.[111]
During theSoviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for theCIA and theInter-Services Intelligence-trainedmujahideen groups based in the camps ofAfghan refugees. It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,[112] with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.[112] The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[113] and drastically altered the city's demography.[113]
Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group,Tehrik-i-Taliban. Local poets'shrines have been targeted by thePakistani Taliban,[114] asuicide bombattack targeted the historicAll Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children. Peshawar suffered 111 acts ofterror in 2010,[115] which had declined to 18 in 2014,[115] before the launch ofOperation Zarb-e-Azb, which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. A large attack on aShiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people on 4 March 2022. In January 2023, anotherterrorist attack occurred at Peshawar in which 100 people were killed.[116]
Peshawar sits at the eastern end of theKhyber Pass, which has been used as a trade route since theKushan era approximately 2,000 years ago.
Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains.[55]
With an influence from the local steppe climate, Peshawar features ahot semi-arid climate (KöppenBSh), with very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).
Peshawar is not amonsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 mm (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007,[117] while the highest summer rainfall of 402 mm (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010;[118] during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 mm (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010[118]—the previous record was 187 mm (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009.[117] The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 mm (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 mm (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003.[117] Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 kn (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995,[117] while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.[117]
Peshawar's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such as Lahore, Multan and Delhi – all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city, as well as a royal citadel.[122]
Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses andhavelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city's old architecture can still be seen in areas such asSethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque,Kotla Mohsin Khan,Chowk Yadgar and theQissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection.[123]
The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.[124]
According to the2023 census, Peshawar was the 8th largest city of Pakistan[134] and thelargest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa with a population of 1,905,975.[135] Its population is five times higher than the second-largest city in the province.
Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of theAfghan civil war in 1978, though the rate of migration drastically increased following theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[113] and drastically altered the city's demography.[113] During the 1988 national elections, an estimated 100,000 Afghans refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar.[136] In 2012, it was estimated that Afghans constituted 28% of the city's total population, and that the numbers could be higher.[137]
With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists,[138] as well as a major centre ofPashto literature.[139] Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar, and play an important role in the city's economy.[140]
Peshawaris, also known asPeshoris, are the Hindko-speaking urban community which has inhabited the city since the ancient period,[18] mostly associated withtrade,business andeducation. Peshoris formed majority in the city until the 1960s.[141] Today they are a minority ethnic group mostly confined to the oldneighbourhoods in the Walled City.[16]
Pashto is the major language spoken in Peshawar city today, whileHindko was historically the language of street, and is still spoken in the Old City.[107][144] Though English is used in the city's educational institutions, while Urdu is understood throughout the city – as the national language of the country.[145] Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech.[146]
Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim, with Muslims making up 98.5% of the city's population in the 1998 census.[147] Christians make up the second largest religious group with around 20,000 adherents, while over 7,000 members of theAhmadiyya Community live in Peshawar.[147]Hindus andSikhs are also found in the city − though most of the city's Hindu and Sikh community migrateden masse to India following thePartition of British India in 1947.
Though the city's Sikh population drastically declined after Partition, the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4,000 Sikh refugees from conflict in theFederally Administered Tribal Areas;[148] In 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar.[149] Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speakPashto as their mother tongue.[150] There was a small, but, thrivingJewish community until the late 1940s. After the partition and the emergence of theState of Israel, Jews left for Israel.[151]
City Center Road is the major trade zone in Peshawar.
Peshawar's economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to theKhyber Pass – the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent passed. Peshawar's economy also benefited from tourism in the mid-20th century, as the city formed a crucial part of theHippie trail.
Peshawar's estimated monthly per capita income was ₨55,246 in 2015, compared to ₨117,924 inIslamabad,[115] and ₨66,359 inKarachi.[115] Peshawar's surrounding region is also relatively poor − Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20% less than Pakistan's national average for urban residents.[115]
Peshawar was noted by theWorld Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship, freelance jobs, and technology.[157] The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth Summit[158] — an annual event to connect the city and province's youths to opportunities in thedigital economy. The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers, and approximately 3,000 delegates in attendance.[159]
Peshawar's Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road is an industrial zone established in the 1960s on 868 acres. The industrial estate hosts furniture, marble industries, and food processing industries, though many of its plots remain underutilized.[160] The Hayatabad Industrial Estate hosts 646 industrial units in Peshawar's western suburbs, though several of the units are no longer in use.[161] As part of theChina Pakistan Economic Corridor, 4special economic zones are to be established in the province, with roads, electricity, gas, water, and security to be provided by the government.[161] The nearby Hattar SEZ is envisioned to provide employment to 30,000 people,[161] and is being developed at a cost of approximately $200 million with completion expected in 2017.[161]
As a result of large numbers of displaced persons in the city, only 12% of Peshawar's residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012.[140] Approximately 41% of residents in 2012 were employed in personal services, while 55% of Afghan refugees in the city in 2012 were daily wage earners.[140] By 2016, Pakistan had adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees.
Wages for unskilled workers in Peshawar grew on average 9.1% per year between 2002 and 2008. Following the outbreak of widespread Islamist violence in 2007, wages rose only 1.5% between 2008 and 2014. Real wages dropped for some skilled craftsmen during the period between 2008 and 2014.[115]
Peshawar's economy has been negatively impacted by political instability since 1979 resulting from theWar in Afghanistan and subsequent strain on Peshawar's infrastructure from the influx of refugees.[140] The poor security environment resulting from Islamist violence also impacted the city's economy. With the launch ofOperation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014, the country's security environment has drastically improved.[162]
The metropolitan economy suffers from poor infrastructure. The city's economy has also been adversely impacted by shortages of electricity and natural gas.[163] The $54 billionChina Pakistan Economic Corridor will generate over 10,000 MW by 2018[164] – greater than the current electricity deficit of approximately 4,500 MW.[165]
Poor transportation is estimated to cause a loss of 4–6% of the PakistaniGDP.[166] Peshawar for decades has suffered from chaotic, mismanaged, and inadequate public transportation and the poor public transportation also has been detrimental to the city's economy.[167] Therefore, the government has since a new rapid bus service calledBRT Peshawar covering the entire Peshawar. BRT Peshawar is now believed to be one the most advanced BRT of Pakistan[168]
Newflyovers, such as this one near the suburb ofHayatabad, have been constructed in recent years to improve traffic flow.
Peshawar's east–west growth axis is centred on the historicGrand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar toIslamabad andLahore. The road is roughly paralleled by theM-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad, while theM-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via theKhyber Pass, with onwards connections toKabul andCentral Asia via theSalang Pass.
Peshawar is to be completely encircled by thePeshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city's congested centre. The road is currently under construction, with some portions open to traffic.
TheKarakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia viaKashgar in the Chinese region ofXinjiang.
TheIndus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar, with a terminus in the southern port city ofKarachi viaDera Ismail Khan and northernSindh. The 1.9 km (1.2 mi)Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city ofKohat along the Indus Highway.
TheHazara Motorway, constructed as part of CPEC, is providing control-access motorway travel all the way toMansehra andThakot via the M-1 and Hazara Motorways.
The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project,[169] with completion by 2021.[170] Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km/h (37 to 65 mph) speed currently possible on existing tracks.[171]
Peshawar was also once the terminus of theKhyber train safari, a tourist-oriented train that provided rail access toLandi Kotal. The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region's Taliban insurgency.
BRT Peshawar is a modern & third generation rapid bus service of Peshawar, which has started its service on 13 August 2020.[173] It has 30 stations and 244 buses, which covers area fromChamkani toKarkhano Market. BRT Peshawar has replaced Peshawar's old, chaotic, dilapidated, and inadequate transportation system. The system has 30 stations and is mostly at grade, with four kilometres of elevated sections.[174] The system also contains 3.5 kilometres of underpasses.[174] BRT Peshawar is also complemented by a feeder system, with an additional 100 stations along those feeder lines.[168]
Peshawar has one of the most advanced Metro (BRT) systems.
Peshawar is well-served by private buses (locally referred to as "flying coaches") and vans that offer frequent connections to throughout Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, as well as all major cities of Pakistan. The city'sDaewoo Express bus terminal is located along theG.T. Road adjacent to the departure points for several other transportation companies.[175]
Peshawar has historically served as the political centre of the region, and is currently the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The city and province have been historically regarded to be strongholds of theAwami National Party – a secularleft-wing and moderate-nationalist party.[176][177] ThePakistan Peoples Party had also enjoyed considerable support in the province due to itssocialist agenda.[176]
Despite being a centre for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar is still generally known throughout Pakistan for its social conservatism.[178] Sunni Muslims in the city are regarded to be socially conservative,[178] while the city's Shia population is considered to be more socially liberal.[178]
A plurality of voters in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, of which Peshawar is the capital, elected one of Pakistan's only religiously based provincial governments during the period of military dictatorship ofPervez Musharraf. A ground-swell of anti-American sentiment after the 2001United States invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the Islamist coalition's victory.[179]
The Islamists introduced a range of social restrictions following the election of the IslamistMuttahida Majlis-e-Amal coalition in 2002, though IslamicShariah law was never fully enacted.[179] Restrictions on public musical performances were introduced, as well as a ban prohibiting music to be played in any public places, including on public transportation – which lead to the creation of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar.[180] In 2005, the coalition successfully passed the "Prohibition of Use of Women in Photograph Bill, 2005,"[181] leading to the removal of all public advertisements in Peshawar that featured women.[182]
The religious coalition was swept out of power by the secular and leftistAwami National Party in elections after the fall of Musharraf in 2008,[179] leading to the removal of the MMA's socially conservative laws.[183] 62% of eligible voters voted in the election.[115] The Awami National Party was targeted by Taliban militants, with hundreds of its members having been assassinated by thePakistani Taliban.[184]
In 2013, the centristPakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf was elected to power in the province on an anti-corruption platform. Peshawar city recorded a voter turnout of 80% for the 2013 elections.[115]
86% of Peshawar's households have access to municipal piped water as of 2015,[115] though 39% of Peshawar's households purchase water from private companies in 2015.[115]
42% of Peshawar households are connected to municipal sewerage as of 2015.[115]
After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances, a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar.[180] After the start of Pakistani Taliban insurgency in 2007–2008, militants began targeting members of Peshawar's cultural establishment. By 2007, Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region, leading to the closure of many others.[185] In 2009, Pashto musical artistAyman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city's outskirts. In June 2012, a Pashto singer,Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in Peshawar, after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar.[186]
Musicians began to return to the city by 2016,[187] with a security environment greatly improved following theOperation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country. In 2016, the provincial government announced a monthly income of $300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work,[187] as well as a $5 million fund to "revive the rich cultural heritage of the province".[187]
ThePeshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory ofQueen Victoria. The building features an amalgamation of British, South Asian, Hindu, Buddhist andMughal Islamic architectural styles. The museum's collection has almost 14,000 items, and is well known for its collection ofGreco-Buddhist art. The museum's ancient collection features pieces from theGandharan,Kushan,Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.
Numerous educational institutes — schools, colleges and universities — are located in Peshawar. 21.6% of children between the ages of 5 and 9 were not enrolled in any school in 2013,[115] while 16.6% of children in the 10 to 14 age range were out of school.[115]
Apart from good range of universities, Peshawar has host of high qualityfurther education (Post School) educational institutes. The most renowned are,Edwardes College founded in 1900 by Herbert Edwardes, is the oldest college in the province andIslamia College Peshawar, which was established in 1913. Islamia College became university and named asIslamia College University in 2008.[205]
The following is a list of some of the public and private universities and colleges in Peshawar:
There are hosts of sporting facilities in Peshawar. The most renowned areArbab Niaz Stadium,[209] and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium, which are the International cricket grounds of Peshawar andQayyum Stadium,[210][211] which is the multi sports facilities located inPeshawar Cantonment.
In 1975, the first sports complex,Qayyum Stadium was built in Peshawar[211] whileHayatabad Sports Complex was built in the early 1990s.[216] Both Qayyum Stadium and Hayatabad Sports Complexes are multiple sports complexes with facilities for all major indoor and outdoor sports such asfootball,[217]Field Hockey ground,[218]Squash,Swimming, Gymnasium, Board Games section,Wrestling,Boxing andBadminton. In 1991, Qayyum Stadium hosted Barcelona Olympics Qualifier Football match between Pakistan and Qatar[217] plus it also hosted National Games in 2010.[219]Hockey andsquash are also popular in Peshawar.
^"The date of the Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat, the Musalman day of mourning, in 1910, which led to a very serious riot between the Hindus and Musalmans of the Peshawar City resulting in a considerable loss of life. There was a wholescale plunder of Hindu houses and shops."[103]: 92–93
^"On 22nd February 1910, a meeting of leading Muslims and Hindu leaders was called by deputy commissioner of Peshawar at the Municipal Hall in which arrangements regarding the upcoming festivals were discussed and a committee was established consisting of prominent leaders from both sides. It was decided in the meeting that the Holi should be celebrated quietly until the 25th March. There should be only two processions, namely from the Hindu quarter of Andar Shahr to that of Karimpura and vice-versa. The Muslim of the city should not join the procession and the troops should celebrate Holi in their lines and some leading men from both sides will supervise the arrangement at Hasting Memorial and other at Clock Tower."[104]: 23–24
^On 21 March the Deputy Commissioner was informed by deputy superintendent of police Zain ul Abidin that the situation in the city is not good as Hindu brought some musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Hari Pur and they are intending to lead the procession on an unauthorized route. The superintendent of police suggested the deputy commissioner that the Holi should not be allowed as the situations going to create clash. Mr. Blackway sent some Hindu leader to enquire the situation. These Hindu gentlemen assured the deputy commissioner that the situation is friendly and nothing bad is going to be happened. There is no musician with the Holi and it would follow the old route. At the same time some Muslim leaders reported to the deputy commissioner about the Muslim mob who intended to stop the Holi procession. They also suggested that Holi procession should be stopped to avoid an expected clash between the two communities. However, after the surety of the Hindu leaders that there are no musicians and dancing boys and that the procession is not going on an unauthorized route the deputy commissioner was stuck to follow his old plan. This was the point which was misunderstood and created communal violence in the city.[104]: 24
^Around 8 pm when the Holi procession at Asa Mai gate was about to depart on the route to Pir Rathan Nath Dharamshala sub inspector Kanhya Lal who was posted at Chita Khuo informed the police head quarter that a mob of Muslim also assembled to stop it and the two mobs started abusing each other. Leaders from both sides tried to control the situation but the people from both sides refused to pay any heed to their leaders. Meanwhile, a Hindu Mahr Singh stabbed a Muslim with knife. Mahr Singh was chased by the mob and captured him at Bara Bazar. At the same time two Muslims Jani and Ahmad were killed by Hindu with knives. Police report for 21 March 1911, provides that two Muslim were killed and three wounded while from Hindu side two people were killed and eleven were wounded and eleven shops were broken.[104]: 24
^When the funeral party was ousted from the city a riffraff of Muslim consisting of people from trans-border areas and Afghanistan remained in the city that started plundering and broke 285 shops. A violent clash was started in which two Hindus and one Muslim was killed... The next day on 23 March the looting of shops started again. The first case was reported in Ramdas Bazar where the Muslim despite the Military and Police patrolling looted the Hindu shops. A Hindu, reader of Nawab of Landi fired and wounded two Muslim. The local Hindu during investigation denied the fact but Military intelligence reported that he fired and wounded two people. He was arrested and sent on trial under India Penal Code. Two Hindu were killed at Ram Das Bazar. It was also reported that in Mewa Mandi a mob of Afridi and Mohmand tribes started plundering and looted many shops. People from tribal areas were also involved in this looting. 11 shops were broken in Ram Das Bazar that day... The official records about the events of the day had self-contradictory statements. The starting paragraphs of police and commissioner reports claims that everything was good at the start of the day but after a while the situation was out of control in the whole city. For instance, police reports provides that around 10:00 am, in Karimpura a police constable Chettan Ram was struck on head and the mob at Bara Bazar started the slogan "Maro Hindu Ko".[104]: 25
^1891–1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Peshawar, which included Peshawar Municipality and Peshawar Cantonment.[125]: 19
^Hindko was described under Punjabi in the 1951 census of Pakistan.
^1868–1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Peshawar, which included Peshawar Municipality and Peshawar Cantonment.[125]: 19
2017-2023: Urban population of Peshawar District.[152][153]
^Baloch, Sikandar Khan (2004).In the Wonderland of Asia, Gilgit & Baltistan. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 124.ISBN9789693516142.Within the next decade, emerged the great kingdom of Gandhra under the great Kushan king Kaniskha (125-160 AD). The seat of his central government was Purushpura which is today known as Peshawar.
^Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002).History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 148.ISBN9788126900275.Kanishka's coins have been found as far as Ghaznipur and Gorakhpur. These point to the wide extent of his Indian dominion which stretched from Gandhara to Banaras. The eastern portion of this empire was governed by Mahakshatrapa and a Kshatrapa while the northern portion by military governors. He fixed his capital at Purushpura or Peshawar which he adorned with many noble buildings.
^The Listener, Volume 39.British Broadcasting Corporation. 1948. p. 27.Of course the Kushan capital established by Kanishka in India was at Purushpura — Peshawar — not Mathura, where the Saka satraps had held sway and probably continued under the overlordship of the Kushans.
^abcDani, Ahmad Hasan (1995).Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 12.ISBN978-969-35-0554-2.The Afghan migration to the city of Peshawar has completely changed the character of the city. Peshawar, which was regarded as a 'Khar' (city) — a home of town dwellers engaged in trade and business — by the rurally oriented Pathans, is no longer the same today. The Pathans, or rather the Afghans, have made Peshawar as their own city. TheHindko language, which was the common lingua franca of thePeshawaris, as it was the language of the business class, has almost lost its place. Pashto has now become more dominant and so has increased the number of Pathans in the city.
^Nadiem, Ihsan H. (2007).Peshawar: Heritage, History, Monuments. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 15.ISBN978-969-35-1971-6.With the influx of these refugees the language pattern of the Peshawar City also changed drastically as they managed to assimilate in the local populace with comparative ease... Pashto-speaking population overwhelmingly dominating the Hindko or Peshawari-speaking populace (also known as Khaari–urban) in the city.
^"Languages".Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Official Web Portal. Retrieved21 August 2025.Hindko, (a Punjabi dialect) is spoken in the majority in Hazara Division and also in the central old city areas of Nowshera, Kohat, and Peshawar city.
^abHiro, Dilip (2012).Apocalyptic Realm: Jihadists in South Asia.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-17378-9.Of the sixteen gates of the historic walled city of Peshawar (derivative of Purushapura, meaning "town of men" in Sanskrit), the best known is the Kabuli Gate.
^Jones, Barry (2019).Dictionary of World Biography: Sixth edition. ANU Press. p. 469.ISBN978-1-76046-287-1.His empire extended to Afghanistan, parts of Iran and northern India-Pakistan, and his capital Purushpura is the modern Peshawar, where he built an enormous stupa. He sent Buddhist missionaries to China.
^abJaffar, S. M. (1952).An Introduction to Peshawar. S.M.S. Khan.The old name Purushapura is said to have been derived from Purush, a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been.
^The North-West Frontier Province Year Book.Government of Pakistan. 1954. p. 47.The old name Purushpura is said to have been derived from Purush, after a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been.
^Cotton, James Sutherland; Burn, Sir Richard; Meyer, Sir William Stevenson (1909).Imperial Gazetteer of India. Clarendon Press. p. 463.Purushapura, seat of king Purush, Peshawar probably derived from, xx. 124.
^Bulletin of the Asia Institute, Volume 7.Wayne State University Press. 1994. p. 55.As the Fu-lou-sha of Fa-hsien is also identifiable as Peshawar, the fifth-century Chinese transcription of Purushapura can clearly be equated with the seventh-century Pu-lu-sha, the equivalent syllables for pu-lo, representing the Sanskrit pura ...
^"Ancient Peshawar:Historical Review of Some of its Socio-Religious and Cultural Aspects".asc-centralasia.edu.pk. Archived fromthe original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved19 July 2019.The famous Muslim historian and geographer al-Masudi (871–957 AD), also known as the 'Herodotus of the Arabs' for he wrote a 30-volume history of the world, spelt Peshawar as Pershadwar. Purshawar or Purushavar: Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni (973–1048 AD), the Arab geographer and historian records two variants for Peshawar; Purshawar and Purushavar.
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1995).Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier. Sang-e-Meel Publications.ISBN9789693505542.Peshawar has long been known as "the Fountier—town." Standing right at the mout of the world-famous Khyber Pass, it holds the key to the gateway of the subcontinent of Pakistan and India.
^Rishi, Weer Rajendra (1982).India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity. Roma Publications.The capital of Kushan Empire was Purushpura, the modern Peshawar.
^Heitzman, James (2008).The City in South Asia.Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-28962-2.Taxila long played the role of the eastern capital, in the region known as Gandhara, alongside the region's western capital Pushkaravati or Charsadda, which attracted traders along the northern bank of the Khyber River until its eclipse by the city of Purushapura (later Peshawar) established by the second century CE (Deloche 1993, 1: 31–2).
^Sandhu, Gurcharn Singh (2000).A military history of ancient India. Vision Books. p. 24.
^abcA. D. H. Bivar, "The History of Eastern Iran", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed.),The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol.3 (1),The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, London, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p.197.
^abPandey, Mithila Sharan (1963).The Historical Geography and Topography of Bihar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 198.Under the Mauryas, when Pataliputra was the capital of the whole empire, a road ran from Tamralipti, which was probably then on or very near the coast, to Purushapura in the north-west.
^abElisseeff, Vadime (1998).The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Berghahn Books. p. 175.ISBN978-1-57181-222-3.
^Abrams, Harry N. (2000).The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West.Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 133.ISBN978-0-87099-961-1.The late-first—early-second-century-A.D. rule of Kanishka, the third Kushan emperor, was administered from two capitals, Purushapura (Peshawar), near the Khyber Pass, and Mathura, in northern India.
^Rosenberg, Matt; Tertius Chandler (2012)."Top 10 Cities of the Year 100".Education > Geography (sourced from Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census by Tertius Chandler. 1987, St. David's University Press). About.com.Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved13 December 2012.
^Wink, Andre (2002).Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries. Brill.ISBN978-0-391-04173-8.
^Puri, Baij Nath (1987).Buddhism in Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN9788120803725.
^Wink, Andre (2002).Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries. BRILL.ISBN978-0-391-04174-5.
^ab"Taareekh-e-Hazara" (Urdu) by Dr. Sher Bahadur Khan Panni_first edition_1969 p 295-313,"Taareekh-e-Wadi-e-Chhachh and Aqwaam-e-Chhachh" (Urdu) by Manzoor Awan p 175-182, "Afghanistan and its inhabitants" translation of Muhammad Hayat Khan's book by Henry B Priestley_1874 (reproduced by Sang-e-Meel Publications_Pakistan_1981) p-55/56, p- 197/198, "Da Pasto Qabeelo Shajre o Mene" (Pashto) by Muhammad Umar Rond Miakhel_2001 p 346-347
^ab"The Kingdom of Afghanistan – A Historical Sketch" by G.P.Tate (1911), Reproduced by 'Indus Publications' (1973) Page 12 (Foot Note)
^Akbar Nama, trans. H. Beveridge, vol. 3, p. 715 quoted in Dani, Peshawar. p. 102. Whereas according to Nizam ai-Din Ahmad it was "on the [next day]" that Akbar sent Zain Khan Kukah "with a well equipped army against the Afghans of Sawad (Swat) and Bajaur, for the extirpation of those turbulent tubes," Khwajah Nizam al-Din Ahmad, The Tabaqat-i-Akbari: (A History of India from the early Musalman Invasions to the thirty-eight year of the reign of Akbar), vol. 2, trans, Brajendra Nath De. rev. and ed, Baini Prashad, low Price Publications, Delhi, 1992, p, 607.
^abThe Cambridge History of India, Volume 3. CUP Archive. 1928.
^Ahmad, Hasan Dani (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.ISBN9788120815407. Retrieved 29 March 2017
^abMehta, Jaswant Lal (2005).Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813. New Dawn Press, Incorporated. pp. 236, 256, 260.ISBN978-1-932705-54-6. "The province of Multan and northwest frontier were also overrun by Marathas and the forts of Peshawar and Attock were garrisoned by their troops"
^abcdeDani, Ahmad Hasan (2003).History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. UNESCO.ISBN9789231038761.
^abcdRai, Jyoti; Singh, Patwant (2008).Empire of the Sikhs: The Life and Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Peter Owen Publishers.ISBN978-0-7206-1371-1.
^abLee, Jonathan (2019).Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 188.ISBN978-1-78914-010-1.
^abcdJaved, Asghar (1999–2004)."History of Peshawar". National Fund for Cultural Heritage.Archived from the original on 27 February 2004. Retrieved13 December 2012.
^Lee, Jonathan (2019).Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 208.ISBN978-1-78914-010-1.
^Qaiser, Iqbal (2012)."Gurudwara Bhai Joga Singh at Peshawar".All About Sikhs – your Gateway to Sikhism. Gateway to Sikhism.Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved13 December 2012.
^Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1. Bahri Publications. 1986. p. 50.Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.
^The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan. Christian Study Centre. p. 38.Shackle suggests Hindko simply means "Indian language' and describes it as a "collective label for the variety of Indo-Aryan dialects either alongside or in vicinity of Pushto in the northwest of the country'. Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, represented in nearly one-fifth (18.7%) of the province's total households. ... The Influence of Pushto on Hazara appears to have become more pronounced, due in part to an Influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who formerly held key trading positions and who departed at independence.
^abcde"Peshawar Climate Data".PakMet. Climate Data Processing Centre (CDPC), Pakistan Meteorological Department, Karachi. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved26 June 2016.
^ab"RAINFALL STATEMENT JULY-2010".PakMet. Climate data Processing Centre (CDPC), Pakistan Meteorological Department, Karachi. Archived from the original on 20 August 2010. Retrieved26 June 2016.
^"Peshawar Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved17 September 2023.
^Lorch, Donatella (16 November 1988)."Pakistan Restricts Afghan. Refugees".The New York Times. The New York Times Company.Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved13 December 2012.
^Alimia, Sanaa (2022).Refugee cities: how Afghans changed urban Pakistan. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 88.ISBN978-1-5128-2279-3.
^IBP, Inc. (1 June 2015).Pakistan: Doing Business and Investing in Pakistan: Strategic, Practical Information, Regulations, Contacts. Lulu.ISBN978-1-5145-2747-4.
^"Transport policy: need of the day".Dawn. 13 February 2017.Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved7 April 2017."Inefficiencies in the performance of the transport sector costs Pakistan's economy 4-6pc of GDP", said Werner E. Liepach, ADB Country Director.
^Ahmad, Imtiaz (10 June 2016)."Pakistan to get Chinese funds for upgrading rail links, building pipeline".Hindustan Times.Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved9 August 2016.The project is planned to be completed in two phases in five years by 2021. The first phase will be completed by December 2017 and the second by 2021.
^Rumi, Raza; Manzoor Ali (30 June 2012)."The Music Doesn't Stop in Peshawar".The Indian Express: Journalism of Courage.Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved13 December 2012.
Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. "Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier." Saqi Books (1 March 2003).ISBN0-86356-438-0.
Beal, Samuel. 1884. "Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang." 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
Beal, Samuel. 1911. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing". Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
Dobbins, K. Walton. 1971. "The Stūpa and Vihāra of Kanishka I". The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series, Vol. XVIII. Calcutta.
Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India; comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969).
Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)."BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369.
Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī";Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11, pp. 25–32.
Moorcroft, William andTrebeck, George. 1841. "Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825", Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
Reeves, Richard. 1985. "Passage to Peshawar: Pakistan: Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea." Holiday House September 1985.ISBN0-671-60539-9.
Imran, Imran Rashid. 2006. "Baghaat-i-Peshawar." Sarhad Conservation Network. July 2006.
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