Peru–Bolivian Confederation Confederación Perú-Boliviana | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1836–1839 | |||||||||||||
 Flag  Emblem | |||||||||||||
| Motto: Firme por la Unión | |||||||||||||
| Anthem: National Anthem of Peru[a] | |||||||||||||
.svg) Map of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (including territorial claims) | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Tacna | ||||||||||||
| Official languages | Spanish | ||||||||||||
| Recognised regional languages | |||||||||||||
| Constituent countries |
| ||||||||||||
| Government | Confederatedpresidentialrepublic | ||||||||||||
| Supreme Protector | |||||||||||||
• 1836–1837 | Andrés de Santa Cruz | ||||||||||||
• 1837 | Pío de Tristán(interim)[1] | ||||||||||||
• 1837–1839 | Andrés de Santa Cruz | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
• Established by decree | 28 October 1836 | ||||||||||||
• Pact of Tacna | 1 May 1837 | ||||||||||||
| 20 January 1839 | |||||||||||||
• Dissolution declared[b] | 25 August 1839 | ||||||||||||
| 15 November 1839 | |||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||
• 1835–1836 estimate | 2,434,513[2][3] | ||||||||||||
| Currency | Peruvian real,Bolivian sol | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
| Today part of | Peru Bolivia Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Paraguay | ||||||||||||
ThePeru–Bolivian Confederation (Spanish:Confederación Perú-Boliviana)[4] was a short-lived state that existed inSouth America between 1836 and 1839. The country was a looseconfederation made up of three states:North Peru,South Peru, and theBolivian Republic.[5] North Peru and South Peru had emerged from the division of thePeruvian Republic due to thePeruvian Civil War of 1834 and theSalaverry-Santa Cruz War of 1835-6.
The geographical limits of the Confederation varied over time, with Boliviaoccupying and incorporating certain disputed territories in northernArgentina in 1838. It also possessedde factoautonomous indigenous territories, such asIquicha, all under the supreme command of MarshalAndrés de Santa Cruz, who assumed the position ofSupreme Protector in 1836, while he waspresident of Bolivia.
Although its institutional creation arose on 1 May 1837, with thePact of Tacna, itsde facto establishment dated from 28 October 1836,[5] with the end of the Salaverry-Santa Cruz War, and lasted until 25 August 1839, with itsdissolution proclaimed by GeneralAgustín Gamarra,[6] the Peruvianrestorationist president whodeclared war against the Confederation, supported by theUnited Restoration Army headed by himself and ChileanManuel Bulnes—formerly theRestoration Army of Peru—made up of Peruvian and Bolivian opponents of the Confederation, as well as the governments and armies ofChile andArgentina. Both Chile and Argentina opposed the Confederation as a potential military and economic threat, and for its support for dissidents in exile.
Argentina and Bolivia reached an agreement after theirwar over Tarija, and theConfederate Army was ultimately defeated by the United Restoration Army in the 1839Battle of Yungay, which put an end to theWar of the Confederation. HistorianJorge Basadre frames the confederation as part of a period of "determination of the nationalities" in western South America.[7]
At the beginning of the 19th century,Simón Bolívar postulated the idea of creating a great nation, coinciding withAndrés de Santa Cruz, who thought of unitingPeru andBolivia in a single country, the latter colloquially known asUpper Peru. The idea of uniting both countries was the general idea of several influential political leaders in Peru—includingFrancisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro,José María Pando [es],Manuel Lorenzo de Vidaurre [es],Agustín Gamarra, among others—who sought to reintegrate the two Perus, disagreeing only in the form of the "union": confederation or merger. An important factor in the desire to unite these two states were the historical ties between both regions, even after independence.[8]
After political instability and a coup d'état in 1835, acivil war broke out between newly self-declared presidentFelipe Santiago Salaverry and constitutional presidentLuis José de Orbegoso, who allowed Bolivian presidentAndrés de Santa Cruz to send his troops through the Peruvian border.[9] After the latter's triumph in 1836, assemblies were soon established to make way for the creation of the Confederation.
Two constituent congresses were established in each of the three founding states of the confederation, in the cities ofHuaura (North Peru),Sicuani (South-Peru) andTapacarí (Bolivia). Immediately, the representatives of the three states promised to celebrate the union pact of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation as soon as possible.
TheSicuani Assembly was established on 16 March 1836, and closed on 22 March. It featured representatives fromAyacucho,Arequipa,Cuzco,Puno andTacna.[10] On 10 April, Orbegoso recognizedSouth Peru as an independent state through a decree, and a Supreme Court was installed inCuzco on 24 August. The assembly also created the country's flag and currency. Fines were put in place to prevent the(now North) Peruvian flag from being flown.[11]
TheHuaura Assembly lasted from 3 to 24 August 1836, and featured representatives fromLa Libertad,Lima,Huaylas,Maynas andJunín.[10] On 11 August,North Peru was officially established through the promulgation of its constitution by the then President Orbegoso, naming Santa Cruz—who triumphantly enteredLima on 15 August—as the Supreme Protector of the state. Orbegoso also presented his resignation, but it was not approved by the assembly, who named him provisional president. The assembly also established the new territorial divisions of the country.[12] Unlike its new southern neighbour, North Peru maintained the national symbols of its predecessor.[13]
In the case of Bolivia, a special session of theTapacarí Congress [es] had previously been held on 21 June 1836, which authorized Santa Cruz to complete the confederation project to which Bolivia had already adhered with the Law of 22 July 1835. Around that time, Santa Cruz received the diploma and insignia of Grand Officer of theLegion of Honour, with which theKing of France honored him. He also received a communication fromPope Gregory XVI and a rosary with his medal, blessed by the Pope himself.[14]
Provided, then, with all the legal elements granted by the assemblies of the three states, Santa Cruz decreed the establishment of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, by decree given in Lima on 28 October 1836.[14][15] A congress known today as theCongress of Tacna (Spanish:Congreso de Tacna) was ordered to meet inTacna to establish the foundations of the confederation. Acustoms office was also opened inArica, which employed both South Peruvians and Bolivians.[16]
During the meeting, Santa Cruz arranged for each state to send a priest, a soldier and a lawyer as delegates before, and consequently, three religious, three lawyers and three soldiers marched to Tacna. The nine delegates were as follows:
Initially, 24 January 1837, was chosen as the congress' date, but it had to be postponed. Santa Cruz decided to accompany the plenipotentiaries of the North-Peruvian State, for which reason he left Lima and embarked on the frigateFlora on 9 February, but instead of disembarking inIslay, he went toArica, where he arrived on 27 February. The congress was postponed to 18 April; Meanwhile, Santa Cruz remained in Arica, but on 2 March he headed for Tacna, where he was received with much fanfare. From Tacna he went toViacha on 10 March, arriving inLa Paz the following day. There, together with the Bolivian plenipotentiaries Aguirre and Buitrago, and Bolivian Vice PresidentMariano Enrique Calvo, he agreed on the project that should be discussed and approved in Tacna. Then, in the first days of April, he went down to Tacna again.[citation needed]
On 18 April 1837, the Tacna Congress was inaugurated, with the presence of the nine delegates. ThePact of Tacna (Spanish:Pacto de Tacna) was signed without debate during the congress. It established thelegal framework through which the state would operate, and also included the design of the flag.[17] Reactions to the pact were mixed event among its signatories, and disagreements led to the establishment of one constituent congress per member state.[18] The act was later promulgated in 1837.
Like Orbegoso, Santa Cruz also had many opponents and enemies born in the frequent caudillo clashes of the early years of Peru's republican history. Among those enemies were powerful characters such asAgustín Gamarra andRamón Castilla, who at the time were exiled in Chile.[10][19]
The rivalry that existed between the ports ofCallao andValparaíso worsened as a result of the establishment of the Confederation.[15] A tariff war soon began between both states,[20] and Orbegoso supportedRamón Freire's failed expedition againstDiego Portales.[21][22] TheCongress of Chile approved the declaration of war on 26 December 1836,[22] claiming that Santa Cruz's rule over Peru was illegitimate, and that his influence threatened the integrity of otherSouth American nations, as seen by Orbegoso's support for the attempted invasion of Chile by Freire, specifically pointing out the attempt on Portales.[23]
A territorial dispute between Argentina and Bolivia over the territory ofTarija escalated, as Bolivia occupied and annexed the territory[24] andJuan Manuel de Rosas thendeclared war on the Confederation on 19 May 1837, accusing Santa Cruz of harboring supporters of theUnitarian Party. The accusations ended up being true, as Santa Cruz had financially supported the émigrés.[25]
Portales was assassinated inValparaíso after a mutiny broke out inQuillota, leading to preparations for the invasion of South Peru.[22] Thus, the first "Restorative Expedition" left Valparaíso on 15 September 1837, landing inQuilca, and occupyingArequipa on 12 October, establishing alocal government on 17 October.[26] TheConfederate Navy captured theJuan Fernández Islands on 14 November.[27]
On 17 November, after the Chileans were surrounded by Peruvian troops, theTreaty of Paucarpata was signed byManuel Blanco Encalada under the guarantee ofGreat Britain, through which the occupation was undone six days later and the Peruvian ships captured by Chile were to be returned.[22][28] After Blanco Encalada's troops arrived in Valparaíso, he was met with hostile demonstrations and the Chilean government repudiated the treaty of Paucarpata.[27] A second expedition headed byManuel Bulnes was organized,[29] which left for Peru on 19 July 1838.[22]
Around the same time,North Peru seceded from the Confederation on 30 July,[30] but was nevertheless attacked and defeated by the United Restoration Army in theBattle of Portada de Guías of 21 August.[31][32] Meanwhile, Confederate troops in Callao werebesieged by the same army.
During this time, the Confederation's stability collapsed, as by September, Peru (i.e. North and South Peru) was under thede jure control of seven different presidents at one time: Santa Cruz, who was the Supreme Protector; Gamara, the restorationist president; Orbegoso, leader of the secessionist North Peruvian state;José de la Riva Agüero, who replaced Orbegoso, being appointed by Santa Cruz;Pío de Tristán, president of South Peru;Domingo Nieto, in the north; andJuan Francisco de Vidal in Huaylas.[33]
Santa Cruz occupied Lima on 10 November, ending the siege in Callao, but left for the north, where the restaurateurs were located. He was defeated in theBattle of Yungay on 20 January 1839, and thus, the Confederation was dissolved,[31] with Gamarra announcing its dissolution on 25 August.[6] The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first toGuayaquil, in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died.
After the Confederation was defeated, loyalists such asAntonio Huachaca kept fighting against the new Peruvian government, being alsodefeated in November 1839.[34]
According to theFundamental law of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (Spanish:Ley fundamental de la Confederación Perú-Boliviana)signed on April 18, 1837, in each of the Confederation's states, there was, from 1837 until the dissolution, a "provisional president" under Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, who was styled the "supreme protector" and was also president ofBolivia.
This was in accordance to the constitution's stating that each of the three republics would have its own government, with equal rights between the three, but they were subject to the authority of a General Government, whose three powers would have the following characteristics:
In addition to the above, the constitution also defined the flag of the confederation.
 North Peru |  South Peru |  Bolivia | Special administration |
|---|---|---|---|
Argentina: after Boliviaoccupied and annexed the disputed territory ofTarija, Argentina declared war on the Confederation on 19 May 1837.[25] After the war ended, Argentina negotiated with the new Bolivian state over the territories, and Tarija ultimately remained in Bolivia.
Brazil: Brazilian diplomatDuarte da Ponte Ribeiro was appointed as theBrazilian chargé d'affaires to Peru in 1829, and continued his functions after the establishment of the Confederation in 1836.[35] After the state's dissolution, he remained as the representative to Peru, signing a border treaty in 1841.[36][37]
Central America: Morazán and Andrés de Santa Cruz never met, due to political circumstances.
Chile: relations soured quickly after the establishment of the Confederation as Chile wanted to maintain its hegemony over trade in the South Pacific. Peruvian support for a failed naval invasion led to the declaration of war in 1836, which led to a Chilean-backednaval invasion in South Peru, through which relations were reestablished via the 1837Treaty of Paucarpata.
Ecuador:Vicente Rocafuerte, thenpresident of Ecuador, presented a neutral position despite repeated attempts by Chile to get Ecuador to join the conflict, offering instead to act as amediator. Despite this, according to J.P. Roldán, thenConsul inGuayaquil, supporters ofJuan José Flores were eager to join Chile in its war effort. Santa Cruz's government favoured Ecuador by sending subversive leadersJosé María Urvina and Juan Otamendi to Jauja, as well as interning subversive Ecuadorians to theSierra. Ecuador had signed a treaty with the three member states of the Confederation, which was annulled by theEcuadorian Congress in 1837 under Flores' influence.[38] When the Confederation ceased to exist, its consulate in Guayaquil was transferred to the new Peruvian government.[6]
: The French KingLouis Philippe I has cordial relations with Andrés de Santa Cruz. The French government has given Andrés de Santa Cruz asylum after his exile after the dissolution of the confederation.
Great Britain: The British government acted as guarantor of the Treaty of Paucarpata of 1837. When the treaty was annulled, the Consul General notified the Chilean government ofQueen Victoria's disapproval of the continuation of the war.[39] Then chargé d'affaires Belford Hinton Wilson made demands to guarantee the safety of British goods in Lima, which were later moved to Callao.[33]
Mexico: The Government ofJosé Justo Corro has diplomatic relations with both Peru and Bolivia.
New Granada: When pressed by Chilean minister Ventura Lavalle to join the conflict, then presidentFrancisco de Paula Santander expressed his belief that, despite him agreeing with Chile over the threat the state posed to the region (and his personal disliking of Santa Cruz's government and person), the state was doomed due to its dysfunctionality between Santa Cruz's government and Peruvian elements in Bolivia, and recommended that he accept the Ecuadorian mediation so that the war could end.[40]
Paraguay: the government ofJosé Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia did not have establish relations with Andrés de Santa Cruz due to political circumstances.
Spain: Spain did not have diplomatic relations with the confederation, because it had not recognized either Peru or Bolivia, largely due to the skirmishes caused by the wars of independence.
United States: The Confederation was recognized by the U.S. on 16 March 1837, and James B. Thornton was appointed aschargé d'affaires to the new state. After the country's dissolution in 1839, the U.S. did not recognize Bolivia as a separate state until 1848.[41]
Uruguay:Manuel Oribe and Andrés de Santa Cruz never met due to political circumstances.In 2011, PresidentOllanta Humala of Peru proposed Bolivian presidentEvo Morales to reunite the countries in a confederation.[42][43] The Cabinets of the two countries have held joint meetings.[44]
Nunca será excessivo destacar a importância de Ponte Ribeiro na fixação do 'uti possidetis' como doutrina para a discussão dos limites brasileiros. Na negociação do tratado de 1841 com o Peru, o diplomata atuou inicialmente sem orientação clara do Rio de Janeiro e quando finalmente chegaram as instruções, estas contrariavam o rumo que ele havia dado à negociação. Ainda assim, insistiu na tese do 'uti possidetis de facto' mesmo chocando-se frontalmente com a orientação que recebera da capital. Ainda que o tratado tenha sido posteriormente rejeitado, quando seus termos foram retomados, no tratado de 1851, prevaleceria a tese de que a utilização do critério da posse efetiva se constituía no argumento mais vantajoso para o Brasil nas negociações com os vizinhos hispanos. O tratado assinado durante a Missão Especial, em sua essência, repetiu os termos negociados uma década antes e tornou-se modelo para as discussões de limites que se seguiram.
13°24′S68°54′W / 13.4°S 68.9°W /-13.4; -68.9
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