The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensivereefs (mostly rocky, but alsocoral), and abundantpearl oysters; however, itsecology has been damaged by industrialization andoil spills.
TheInternational Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast ofArabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".[5]
The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf isQeshm island, belonging to Iran and located in theStrait of Hormuz. Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf includeGreater Tunb,Lesser Tunb andKish administered by Iran,Bubiyan administered by Kuwait,Tarout administered by Saudi Arabia, andDalma administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been the addition ofartificial islands fortourist attractions, such asThe World Islands inDubai andThe Pearl Island inDoha. Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in the past by colonial powers such as thePortuguese and theBritish in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires.[8]
Oceanography
The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be 2,000 cubic metres (71,000 cu ft) per second), as well as precipitation over the sea which is around 180 mm (7.1 in)/year inQeshm Island. The evaporation of the sea is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there is still a deficit of 416 cubic kilometres (100 cu mi) per year.[9] This difference is supplied by currents at theStrait of Hormuz. The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from the bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –1.84 m (6.0 ft)/year, precipitation = 0.08 m (0.26 ft)/year, inflow from the Strait = 33.66 m (110.4 ft)/year, outflow from the Strait = -32.11 m (105.3 ft)/year, and the balance is 0 m (0 ft)/year.[10] Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and depth each element equal to 1–10 metres (3.3–32.8 ft) are predominantly used in computer models.[citation needed]
Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names. TheAssyrians called it the "Bitter Sea".[11] In 550 BC, theAchaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire inPersis (Pars, or modernFars, also known as Persia), in the southwestern region of theIranian plateau.[12] Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf".[13] In the book ofNearchus known asIndikê (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned for multiple times meaning "Persian gulf".[14]
During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of theArabian Peninsula, the name of "Persian (Pars) Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.[2]
At the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the Great, which belongs to the fifth century BC:[2] King Darius says:[15]
I ordered to dig this (Canal of the Pharaohs) canal from the river that is called Nile (Pirâva) and flows in Egypt (Mudrâyâ), to the sea that begins in Persia (Pârsa). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended.
The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since the 1960s.[26] Rivalry between Iran and some Arab states, along with the emergence ofpan-Arabism andArab nationalism, has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries.[27][28]
History
Ancient history
The region of the Persian Gulf has been inhabited since thePaleolithic.[29] During most of theLast Glacial Period (115,000–11,700 yearsBefore Present), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around 125 metres (410 ft) metres below present values during theLast Glacial Maximum) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around 35 metres (115 ft) and at max around 100 metres (330 ft) metres depth) most of the Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land,[30] forming a flatfloodplain where a number of rivers converged. This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf was formed when sea level rose during the earlyHolocene, from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development ofNeolithic farming cultures in regions of the Middle East adjacent to the Gulf.[29]
Map depicting extent of early civilizations around the Persian Gulf, including Lackhmids and Sassanids.Map depicting theAchaemenid Persian empire in relation to the Persian Gulf.A painting depicting theBritish Expeditionary Force off the coast ofRas Al Khaimah in 1809.
The world's oldest known civilization (Sumer) developed along the Persian Gulf and southernMesopotamia.[29] The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found atH3 in Kuwait, dating to the mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved theUbaid settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along the entire Gulf coast.[31]
For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of thefourth millennium BC, the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by theDilmun civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf wasGerrha. In the second centurythe Lakhum tribe, who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded theLakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led byShapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shorelines.[32] During the seventh century theSassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores.
Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including theMedian,Achaemenid,Seleucid andParthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid kingDarius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.[33] Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers includingShatt-al-Arab,Tigris, and theNile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.[33]
The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.[33][34]
Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of theParthian Empire, theSassanid Empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with theSilk Road, were important trade routes in the Sassanid Empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf.Siraf, an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what is now the Iranian province ofBushehr, is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.[35]
Portuguese influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years;[36] however, since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance[37] contended with the local powers and the Ottoman Empire. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the Safavid Empire allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century.[38]
Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century followingVasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle theOttomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commanderAntonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On 29 April 1602,Shāh Abbās, thePersian emperor of theSafavid Persian Empire, expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,[39] and that date is commemorated asNational Persian Gulf day inIran.[40] With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island ofHormuz from the Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town ofBandar 'Abbās, which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. TheOttoman Empire reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871.[41] Under military and political pressure from the governor of the OttomanVilayet of Baghdad,Midhat Pasha, the rulingAl Thani tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule.[42] The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start ofWorld War I and the need for troops in various other frontiers.[43] InWorld War II, theWestern Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as the "Persian Corridor". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of theTrans-Iranian Railway.[44] The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against theNazi invasion.[45] Thepiracy in the Persian Gulf was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by theAl Qasimi tribe. This led to the British mounting thePersian Gulf campaign of 1819.[46] The campaign led to the signing of theGeneral Maritime Treaty of 1820 between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the "Pirate Coast". From 1763 until 1971, theBritish Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called theTrucial States)[47] and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through theBritish Residency of the Persian Gulf.
The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988Iran–Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other'soil tankers. It is the namesake of the 1991Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followedIraq's invasion ofKuwait. The United States' role in the Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the 20th century.[48] On 3 July 1988,Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken theAirbus A300 operating the flight for an IranianF-14 Tomcat) while it was flying over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board.[49] The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visitedDubai.[50][51] In 2018, the UK opened a permanent military base,HMS Jufair, in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew fromEast of Suez in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman.[52][53][54]
Cities and population
Eight nations have coasts along the Persian Gulf:Bahrain,Iran,Iraq,Kuwait,Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia, and theUnited Arab Emirates. The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of the Middle East are located in this region.
The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrowStrait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are nearextirpation or at serious environmental risk. From corals, todugongs, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as theRed Sea.[55]
Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution.[56]
One of the more unusual marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is thedugong (Dugong dugon). Also called "sea cows", for their grazing habits and mild manner resembling livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and they can grow up to 3 metres (9.8 feet) in length. These gentle mammals feed on sea grass and are closer relatives of certain land mammals than aredolphins andwhales.[79] Their simple grass diet is negatively affected by new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution fromoil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and various other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs.[79] After Australian waters, which are estimated to contain some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia make the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species, hosting some 7,500 remaining dugongs. However, the current number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.[79][80] Ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest, ever-present international conflict, the most lucrative world supply of oil, and the lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, have had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs.
Birds
Birds in Persian Gulf Near Hormuz Island
The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the Persian Gulf home. Concerns regarding the endangerment of thekalbaensis subspecies of thecollared kingfishers were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman.[81] Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles (129 km) from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman.[81] Such real estate expansion could prove devastating to this subspecies. A UN plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.[81] Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections.[81]
Real estate development in the Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman also raised concerns that habitats of species such as thehawksbill turtle,greater flamingo, andbooted warbler may be destroyed.[81][82] The dolphins that frequent the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purseseine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran'sHormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.[83][84]
A 2009 study of ten Iranian islands in the Persian Gulf recorded more than 100,000 breeding pairs of waterbirds from 11 species, including the Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus), Lesser Crested Tern (Thalasseus bengalensis), and Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola). These islands provide critical nesting habitat, and fluctuations in seabird populations have been proposed as biological indicators of regional ecological health.[85]
The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native.[86] Of these 700 species, more than 80% are reef associated.[86] These reefs are primarily rocky, but there are also a fewcoral reefs. Compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between.[87][88][89] This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially theShatt al-Arab (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations).[87][88][89] Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in the Persian Gulf.[89] Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing toglobal warming but mostly to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain.[90] Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, theconstruction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.[90] The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival.
Flora
A great example of thissymbiosis are themangroves in the Persian Gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.[81] Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genusAvicennia orRhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, as the corals are to biological health of the Persian Gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf.[91][92] However, with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them.
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum,[93] and related industries dominate the region.Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshoreoilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantialliquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry.
In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crudeoil reserves, and about 35% of the world'snatural gas reserves.[94][95] The oil-rich countries (excludingIraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as thePersian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the Persian Gulf is narrow and easily blockaded, consisting of the marshy river delta of theShatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of theEuphrates and theTigris rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran.
^abcUnited Nations Group of Experts on Geographical NamesWorking Paper No. 61Archived 2012-10-03 at theWayback Machine, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed 9 October 2010
^Xue, Pengfei; Eltahir, Elfatih A. B. (July 2015). "Estimation of the Heat and Water Budgets of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf Using a Regional Climate Model".Journal of Climate.28 (13):5041–5062.Bibcode:2015JCli...28.5041X.doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00189.1.
^Bosworth, C. Edmund (1980). "The Nomenclature of the Persian Gulf". In Cottrell, Alvin J. (ed.).The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey. Baltimore, Maryland:Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. xvii–xxxvi. p. xxxiii:Not until the early 1960s does a major new development occur with the adoption by the Arab states bordering on the Persian Gulf of the expressional-Khalij al-Arabi as weapon in the psychological war with Iran for political influence in the Persian Gulf; but the story of these events belongs to a subsequent chapter on modern political and diplomatic history of the Persian Gulf.
^Juan R. I. Cole (1987). "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800".International Journal of Middle East Studies.19 (2): 177–203 [186].doi:10.1017/s0020743800031834.JSTOR163353.S2CID162702326.
^"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved5 February 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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^Martin Blumenson; Robert W. Coakley; Stetson Conn; Byron Fairchild; Richard M. Leighton; Charles V.P. von Luttichau; Martin Blumenson; Robert W. Coakley; Stetson Conn; Byron Fairchild; Richard M. Leighton; Charles V.P. von Luttichau; Charles B. MacDonald; Sidney T. Mathews; Maurice Matloff; Ralph S. Mavrogordato; Leo J. Meyer; John Miller, Jr.; Louis Morton; Forrest C. Pogue; Roland G. Ruppenthal; Robert Ross Smith; Earl F. Ziemke (1960).Command Decisions. Government Printing Office. p. 225.
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^de Boer, M. N.; Baldwin, R.; Burton, C. L. K.; Eyre, E. L.; Jenner, K. C. S.; Jenner, M-N., M.; Keith, S. G.; McCabe, K. A.; Parsons, E. C. M.; Peddemors, V. M.; Rosenbaum, H. C.; Rudolph, P.; Simmonds, M. P. (2002).Cetaceans in the Indian Ocean sanctuary: a review(PDF). Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[page needed]
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Further reading
Fromherz, Allen James.The Center of the World: A Global History of the Persian Gulf from the Stone Age to the Present (University of California Press, 2024).Online review of this book.
Fromherz, Allen James, ed.The Gulf in World History: Arabia at the Global Crossroads (Edinburgh University Press, 2018).
Potter, Lawrence G., ed.The Persian Gulf in History (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
External links
Look uppersian gulf in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toPersian Gulf.
Qatar Digital Library – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
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