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ThePersecution of Serers is multifaceted and includes bothethnic andreligious persecution of theSerer people ofSenegal,the Gambia, andMauritania, first, by Muslims, and later by Christians. The persecution of the Serer people can be reliably traced back to the 11th century, continuing from the medieval and European colonial era, to the 19th century, and resulting in theBattle of Logandème (against French colonialism), and theBattle of Fandane-Thiouthioune (against the Muslim jihads). Since the 20th century, the persecution of the Serers has been less visible; they are still the "objects of scorn and prejudice."[1][2]
The religious and ethnic persecution of the Serer people dates back to the 11th century, whenKing War Jabi usurped the throne ofTekrur (part of present-day Senegal) in 1030, and in 1035, introducedSharia law and forced his subjects to submit to Islam.[3] With the assistance of his son Leb, theirAlmoravid allies and otherAfrican ethnic groups who had embraced Islam, the Muslim coalition army launchedjihads against the Serer people of Tekrur because they refused to abandon theirSerer religion in favour of Islam.[4][5][6][7]
TheSerer lamanic class, who also acted as the priestly class and guardians of Serer religion, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, and also their power and wealth as landowners.[8] It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works aslamlam, lemlem, ordamdam which may be a corruption of the Serer titlelamaan.[9][10] The persecution of the Serers in the 11th century led to their first generally accepted exodus from Tekrur, moving southwards.[11][12][13][14][15] The number of Serers who were killed is unknown, and the defeat of the Serers at Tekrur triggeredtheir exodus from Tekrur to the south, where they were granted asylum by the Sererlamanes in the south.[7] The Serer people are very diverse and the Serer Exodus from Tekruk only affected the Serers living in Tekrur at the time. TheTanzanians historian and authorGodfrey Mwakikagile notes that: "...the Serer traversed vast expanses of territory during pre-colonial times and saw the entireregion as their home, as their history of migration in the area clearly shows..."[16]
In the 13th century, a civil war broke out in Tekrur. The descendants of the Serers who chose to remain in Tekrur during the first Serer Exodus decided to migrate southwest, first to theFerlo, and then toSiin andSaloum rather than be converted to Islam.[17][18] Ibrahima Thiaw advanced the claim that, this was the process by which a distinct 'Serer' identity first emerged, separate from the rest of the Takruri population.[19] ProfessorIssa Laye Thiaw, ProfessorCheikh Anta Diop, the 18th century French archaeologist Paul Pierret, and ProfessorMolefi Kete Asanteet al. amongst other historians posits that the name 'Serer' is sacred and pre-Islamic, leading Asanteet al. to conclude that, "they are an ancient people whose history reaches deep into the past..." and that would be consistent with their "strong connection to their ancient religious past".[20][21][22][23]
The persecution of the Serer people continued from themedieval era to the 19th century, resulting in theBattle of Fandane-Thiouthioune where the Serers defeated the ally Muslim forces of the 19th century Senegambian jihadist, Muslim cleric and slave trader,[24]Maba Diakhou Bâ. Since the 20th century, the persecution of the Serers has been less visible though the object of "scorn and prejudice."[1]
The Serer people have a somewhat recent contact with Christianity compared to Islam which they vehemently and violently resisted for almost a thousand years, since the 11th century.[25][26] Serer contact with Christianity came via theAtlantic slave trade and Europeancolonialism. Thus, Christian persecution of Serers who adhere toSerer spirituality (A ƭat Roog), was multi-faceted, and mainly motivated by European colonialists' greed and attempts to dehumanise the Serer. Many early European writers (and some modern writers), some of whom never enteredSerer country, relied on information received from theirWolof translators, have works filled with anti-Serer sentiments including, and not limited to, viewing the Serer people aswicked; "idolaters of great cruelty"; pagans; evil; people without kings; unwelcoming; uncivilised; always sticking together; hostile; and not open to other cultures; etc..[27][28]French colonialists preferred Islam over Serer spirituality, especially whenthe Serer kings refused them permission to own land in Serer country orbuild Christian missions in brick masonry.[29][30]
The earliest contact with European Christians was during the 15th century. In 1446, the Portuguese slave raiderNuno Tristão tried and failed to launch a slave raiding expedition with his Portuguese party in Serer territory. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese (some sources say less). One of them was left to charter theircaravel back to Portugal. Nuno was amongst those killed by the Serers for attempting slave raiding in Serer country.[31][32]
In 1455, the Venetian slave trader, chronicler, and navigatorAlvise Cadamosto parked his caravel in the water and sent his Wolof translator to the Serer community on shore―who stood guard looking menacing, to negotiate slave buying terms.[31] Serer religion and culture forbids slavery.[33][34][35] The Wolof interpreter was brutally killed on the spot by the Serer people on guard for bringing European slave traders into their community.[31] Cadamosto and his Portuguese party on board who witnessed the murder did not come out of the ship; he ordered the ship to be turned around, and headed towards the Gambia.[31]
Cadamosto never stepped foot in Serer country. He failed to realise that he was approaching Serer country, and what was acceptable in Wolof country[27] was not necessarily acceptable in Serer country who did not practice a slave culture due to their religious beliefs[34][33] or at least not to the same extent as other groups,[35] and each tribe have their own customs and traditions, as well as languages. He also failed to realise that the Serer people on the border of Wolof and Serer country viewed the Wolof as ardent enemies for their slave raiding and slave trading slaves activities with Europeans.[31][28]
TheSerer Cangin people (a subgroup of the Serer) viewed the Wolof as the agents of Portuguese slave traders, and their own community the victims of Wolof slave raiding. The Portuguese saw the Wolof as more agreeable and had a better slave trading relationship with them than with the Serer, whom they viewed as hostile.[27][28][36]
Michał Tymowski said that:
Without ever setting foot in Serer country Cadamosto corrupted the name of theKingdom of Sine (one of the Serer Kingdoms) by referring to it as the Kingdom ofBarbaçim, and the Serer people of Sine asBarbacins among other names which many Europeans of that era referred to the Serer people as in their old maps.[38] Since neither Cadamosto nor any of his party ever stepped in Serer country, historians believe that his negative opinions about the Serer were coming from his Wolof interpreters. The Wolofs of Cayor were in constant war with the Serer community living on their border and were fearful of the Serers (theSerer Cangin people to be exact), as detailed by Cadamosto in his writings. In Robert Kerr's "A general history of voyages and travels to the end of the 18th century", Cadamosto refer to the Serers as without kings. However, these Serers were those living on the WolofCayor border and refused to submit to the Wolofkings of Cayor. Alvise did not know that the Kingdom of Sine was actually a Serer kingdom, where the Serer King of Sine, whom he called "Barbacini" – (a corruption of theWolof "Bur Ba Sine" which meansking of Sine, "Maad a Sinig" inSerer) took residence.[28][38]
In 1678, the Serer communities of Sine andBaol (an old Serer kingdom prior to theBattle of Danki in 1549) refused to welcome the French merchants that had settled on thePetite Côte, and voiced their grievances to their respective kings (theMaad a Sinig, king of Sine; and theTeigne, king of Baol). The Maad a Sinig and Teigne with their respective armies sacked the French post. The French, under the command ofAdmiral Jean-Baptiste du Casse, launched a revenge attack the following year and defeated them.[39]
On 13 May 1859, the Serer people of Sine underMaad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof declared war against the French, for France's attempts to revoke all previously agreed treaties which the French no longer viewed as to their advantage, especially in relation to land and building missions in brick, and tried to exercise their wishes without the authority of the Serer King, Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof. At theBattle of Djilas (13 May 1859), the Serers defeated the French, and France suffered a humiliating defeat and lost many soldiers on the battlefield.[40] As reprisals for their defeat at Djilas, France declared war against the Serers of Sine. The Serer people, a very small community, faced theFrench colonial empire at theBattle of Logandème that same year, also known as the "Battle of Fatick" in some French sources, when France brought in more army personnel from its empire, including soldiers from North Africa (Algeria), and the Wolof andLebou ethnic group whom governorLouis Faidherbe of France recruited. In a letter sent to Paris, Faidherbe detailed how he managed to recruit Wolofs and the Lebous to join the French army against their Serer neighbours, as follows:
The Serer army, under the command of King Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof (French variation: Coumba N'Doffène famack Diouf), put up a strong resistance against the French Empire. They were no match for the mighty French Empire and French weaponry, and suffered a severe defeat. It was at Logandème that France, for the first time, decided to employcannonball onSenegambian soil, and possibly inAfrica.[42][40][43] According to French reports, 150 Serer-Sine men were "either killed or wounded, but that the French force had only five wounded."[43] After the French victory, governor Louis Faidherbe ordered his men to burnFatick and the surrounding villages to the ground.[43] The Fatick, as well as theThiès regions are two of the holiest places inSerer religion. Fatick is were the annualXooy ceremony is held. Thiès is were the ancient village ofYaboyabo is located. The village is believed to be the custodian of anancient Serer relic whose narrative is preserved in theSerer creation myth.[43][44]
In 1861, the Serer elder and Chief of Gorom, Jogomay Tine (or Diogomay Tine) of Gorom was displeased when the Wolof King of Cayor, Damel Majojo Faal[45] (the French-backed puppet king of Cayor[46]) conceded his province to the French governor Louis Faidherbe.Damel-TeigneLat Joor Ngoneh Latir Jobe who had now form good relations with the French was invited by the French to occupy the region including Jogomay Tine's province. Majojo was declared too incompetent by the French.[46] Jogomay Tine refused to submit to neither Lat Joor nor the French, and refused to authorise the Serer population of his province to take part in the 1863 census. In April 1863, French governorÉmile Pinet-Laprade authorised the French forces to enter his province. Jogomay Tine was killed by the gun shot.[39] Eight years later in August 1871, the King of Sine, Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof fromthe Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof, went to Joal (one of his provinces) accompanied by a small entourage rather than his army, to assert his authority over Joal, which the French previously took illegally. He was assassinated in Joal by the French.[47] The French claimed they never gave the order to assassinate the King, and laid the blame on a French drunkard merchant called Baccaria.[47][48] None of the credible historians believe them, and the consensus is the assassination of the King was a French directive.[47][48] Historian and author, Professor Martin A. Klein notes that:
Prior to theBattle of Fandane-Thiouthioune on 18 July 1867, the Senegambianjihadist,Maba Diakhou Bâ was able to go toBritish Gambia to stock up on arms in preparation for the upcoming jihad against the Serer people of Sine.[49] The Serer King of Sine,Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof, was however refused permission to buy arm, and blocked by the French from going throughJoal, his only route to Gambia, to buy arms from the British in order to defend his people and country from the Muslim jihadists.[49] Despite the severe handicap in acquiring arms, the King of Sine, the warriors of Sine, and their only ally, the SererKingdom of Saloum, won the battle by sheer military strategy.[50][49]
TheSenegambia region where the Serers are found includes the modern countries of Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania, all which are predominantly Muslim countries. Thus, scholars agree pretty much that the Islamic religion has more of an adverse impact on the Serer than any other religion. In that regard, Professor Klein, writing in 1968 notes that: "The most important factor dividing the peoples of Senegambia was the differential impact of Islam. In this, the Serer stood out as the one group that had undergone no conversion."[51] This division is not just religious, but also has ethnic elements.[1][33] In his paperLa Religiosité des Sereer, Avant et Pendant Leur Islamisation (1991), ProfessorIssa Laye Thiaw posits that, "Islam has divided African communities into believers and non believers."[33] One of the most decisive and well-known religious battles on Senegambian soil was theBattle of Fandane-Thiouthioune between the Muslims, led by the Muslim cleric Maba Diakhou Bâ–aided by theKingdom of Jolof and Cayor, against the Serers of Sine (aided by the SererKingdom of Saloum). It was in that battle were Maba was defeated by theMaad a Sinig,Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof, and Maba killed. In view of the legacy of this historic battle,Iba Der Thiam writes:
On the subject of how Serer culture and traditions managed to survive throughout the centuries despite attempts by others to destroy it, historianGodfrey Mwakikagile writes:
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