The contemporary state inherits its name from theCaptaincy of Pernambuco, established in 1534. The region was originally inhabited byTupi–Guarani-speaking peoples. European colonization began in the 16th century, under mostlyPortuguese rule interrupted by a brief period ofDutch rule, followed byBrazilian independence in 1822. Large numbers ofslaves were brought from Africa during the colonial era to cultivate sugarcane, and a significant portion of the state's population has some amount of African ancestry.
The state has rich cultural traditions thanks to its varied history and peoples.Brazilian Carnivals in Recife and the historic colonial capital ofOlinda are renowned: theGalo da Madrugada parade in Recife has held world records for its size.
Historically a center ofsugarcane cultivation due to the favorable climate, the state has a modern economy dominated by theservices sector today, though large amounts of sugarcane are still grown. The coming of democracy in1985 has brought the state progress and challenges in turn: while economic and health indicators have improved,inequality remains high.
The origins of the namePernambuco are debated, though most hypotheses derive the name from the now-extinctTupi language.
Some scholars claim that the name comes from the combining of theTupi wordspara'nã, meaning "great river" or "sea" andbuka, meaning "hole". Thus,pernambuco would mean "hole in the sea", possibly referring to theCanal de Santa Cruz on theIsland of Itamaracá, north ofOlinda, or to an opening in thereefs between Olinda and Recife.[7] According to others,pernambuco was the name ofbrazilwood in local indigenous languages at the time of first contact, as the tree is found widely in theforests of the future state. A third hypothesis also derives from a Tupi word,paranãbuku, meaning "long river", a possible reference to theCapibaribe River, since primitive maps mark such a "Pernambuco river" north ofCabo de Santo Agostinho, south of Recife.
Another hypothesis, suggested by the academic Jacques Ribemboim, asserts the origins of the name from the Portuguese language. The Canal de Santa Cruz in Recife, at the beginning of the 16th century, was known asBoca de Fernão (named after the explorerFernão de Noronha). The Indians may have pronouncedFernão asPernao and reversed theorder of the words, givingPernão Boca orPernambuka, leading to the contemporary name of Pernambuco.[8]
The state also has some nicknames, such asLion of the North,Land ofFrevo andMaracatu andBlessed Land.
TheFernando de Noronha Islands, 354 km from the mainland, form a "state district" of Pernambuco.
Pernambuco comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone, a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the terraces and slopes between the two.[9]
Its surface is much broken by the remains of the ancient plateau which has been worn down by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped mountains, calledchapadas, capped in places by horizontal layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the boundary lines with three states–the Serra dos Irmãos and Serra Vermelha withPiauí, theSerra do Araripe withCeará, and theSerra dos Cariris Velhos withParaíba.[9]
The coastal area is fertile, and was formerly covered by the humidPernambuco coastal forests, the northern extension of theAtlantic Forests (Mata Atlântica) of eastern Brazil. It is now occupied by extensivesugar cane plantations. It has a hot, humid climate, relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds.[9]
Catimbau Valley - the 2nd-largest Brazilian archeological site
The middle zone, called theagreste region, has a drier climate and lighter vegetation,[9] including the semi-deciduousPernambuco interior forests, where many trees lose their leaves in the dry season.
The inland region, called thesertão is high, stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts (secas). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool nights. There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March to June, and a dry season for the remaining months.[9] The interior of the state is covered mostly by the dry thorny scrub vegetation calledcaatinga. TheRio São Francisco is the main water source for this area.
The climate is more mild in theBorborema Plateau ("Planalto da Borborema"). Some towns are located more than 1000 meters above sea level, and temperatures there can descend to 10 °C (50 °F) and even 5 °C (41 °F) in some cities (i.e.,Triunfo) during the winter.
The volcanic archipelago ofFernando de Noronha in the Atlantic Ocean, 535 km northeast ofRecife, has been part of Pernambuco since 1988.
The rivers of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing southward to theSão Francisco River, and several large streams in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former are theMoxotó,Ema,Pajeú,Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista and Pontai, and are dry channels the greater part of the year.[9]
The largest of the coastal rivers are theGoiana River, which is formed by the confluence of the Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim, and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-east part of the state; theCapibaribe, which has its source in theSerra de Jacarara and flows eastward to the Atlantic atRecife with a course of nearly 300 miles (480 km); theIpojuca, which rises in theSerra de Aldeia Velha and reaches the coast south of Recife; the Serinhaen; and theUná. A large tributary of the Uná, the Rio Jacuhipe, forms part of the boundary line withAlagoas.[9]
Prior to discovery and colonization by Portugal, Pernambuco was inhabited by numerous tribes ofTupi-Guarani speaking indigenous peoples. TheTupi peoples were a largely hunter-gatherer culture living in long houses who cultivated some indigenous crops, most notablymanioc (Manihot esculenta), but lacked any metallic tools. Many elements of the Tupi culture were a shock to Europeans: among these, they bathed frequently, they eschewed wealth accumulation, practiced nudity, and warred frequently, primarily to capture enemies for communal, ritual cannibalism.[10]
Modern day Pernambuco includes the islands ofFernando de Noronha, which precedes mainland Pernambuco's history since the islands were granted to Fernão de Laronha by King Manoel in 1502.[11]
Pernambuco was initially valued as a source ofBrazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata) used in Europe for dyes. These Amerindians were eager to harvest and exchange brazilwood for axes, fishhooks and other goods offered by Europeans.[12] The Portuguese crown granted a license to Fernão de Laronha in 1502.[13] After the expiration of the license the trade in brazilwood was a driver of the exploration of Brazil. Brazilwood was highly valued and other European nations, particularly the French, soon sent ships to exploit this new dye wood. The French underBertrand d'Ornesan tried to establish a French trading post at Pernambuco in 1531.[14] This fort was located at the border of Pernambuco and Itamaricá to the North. The Portuguese King responded by dispatching an armada under the command of Pero Lopes de Sousa. Pero Lopes defeated the French, destroyed their fort and built a new fort.[15]
Shortly after the success in dislodging the French from Pernambuco's northern border with Itamaricá the Portuguese began to settle Brazil. KingJohn III of Portugal created theHereditary Captaincies in 1534, Pernambuco was granted toDuarte Coelho, who arrived inNova Lusitânia (or "NewLusitania") in 1535. Duarte directed military actions against the French-alliedCaetés Indians and upon their defeat in 1537 established a settlement at the site of a former Marin Indian village, henceforth known as Olinda, as well as another village atIgarassu. Under his leadership sugar soon replaced Brazilwood as Pernambuco's most profitable export.[16] Due to the cultivation ofsugar and cotton, Pernambuco was one of the few prosperous captaincies (the other notable one beingSão Vicente).
In addition to requiring a lot of capital investment, refining sugar in the 16th century also required a vast amount of labor. Brazilian Indians were very useful to the Portuguese; both free Indians and enslaved Indians performed many useful services for the Portuguese settlers. This included helping with building Engenhos. However, Brazilian Indian culture was not well suited to the operation of sugar engenhos. Indian culture was not oriented to wealth accumulation. Stuart Schwartz expressed it, "Once a man had enough to eat and a few new tools and weapons, why should he want or work for more."[17]
While thesugar industry relied at first on the labor of indigenous peoples, especially theTupis andTapuyas, high mortality and economic growth led to the importation of enslaved Africans from the late 17th century onward. Some of these slaves escaped the sugar-producing coastal regions and formed independent inland communities calledmocambos, includingPalmares.
In 1630, Pernambuco, as well as many Portuguese possessions in Brazil, was occupied by the Dutch until 1654.[9] The occupation was strongly resisted and the Dutch conquest was only partially successful for these few decades. In the interim, thousands of theenslaved Africans had fled to Palmares, and soon the mocambos there had grown into two significant states. TheDutch Republic, which allowed sugar production to remain in Portuguese hands, regarded suppression of Palmares as important, but was unsuccessful in this.Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, count of Nassau, was appointed as ruler of theNieuw Holland (Dutch colonization enterprise in Brazil).
In the 17th century, theNetherlands was experiencing a surge of freedom and progress, and wanted to expand their colonies in the American continent. An expression of this new economy was theDutch West India Company, (modeled after theDutch East India Company which had influence throughout the world and controlled much of the trade between East and West). A Board of nineteen members appointed PrinceJohan Maurits, Count of Nassau, Governor of Pernambuco. It was an auspicious choice for Northeast, because he was a lover of the arts with a deep interest in the New World. In 1637 he opened his government guidelines quite different from those of the Portuguese colonists, declaring "Freedom of Religion and Trade". His entourage contained traders, artists, planners, German and Dutch citizens. He was accompanied by six painters, includingFrans Post andAlbert Eckhout. Nassau also created an environment of Dutch religious tolerance, new to Portuguese America and irritating to his Calvinist associates. Nassau made efforts to reduce the sugar production monoculture by encouraging the cultivation of other crops, particularly foodstuffs.[18]
Under Dutch rule, Jewish culture developed inRecife. Many Jews, having fled theInquisition in Iberia, sought refuge in the Netherlands. The Jewish community established themselves in Dutch Brazil and would later migrate elsewhere in the Americas. There are records that in 1636 a synagogue was being built in the city. A Jewish scholar fromAmsterdam,Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, arrived inRecife in 1642, becoming the first rabbi on Brazilian soil and on the continent. In 1643, three years after the Portuguese regained the crown in the metropolis, FatherAntónio Vieira – frowned upon, persecuted by the Inquisition and admirer of Aboab – recommended the King of Portugal occupy the capital of the New Christian and Jewish immigrants to help the depressed Portuguese finances[19]
The Portuguese reconquered Recife in 1654 andOlinda regained its status of political center. However,Recife remained the commercial /port city. Nowadays, it is credited that many inhabitants of Pernambuco'sagreste region have some Dutch ancestry.[20]If the Dutch were gone, however, the threat of the now unified quilombo of Palmares remained. In spite of a treaty negotiated in 1678 with its rulerGanga Zumba, a war between the two remained.Zumbi who became ruler following the peace treaty and later repudiated it, fought the Portuguese government until 1694 when soldiers brought from the south eventually defeated him.
Throughout the remainder of the 17th century on to the 20th century much of life in Pernambuco was dominated by the patterns established by monoculture, latifundia, and slavery (until 1888). Sugar and cotton were grown on large plantations and rural society was largely divided into landowning elites and the impoverished poor. In addition, Pernambuco, except for a narrow coastland, is subject to periodic droughts. The boom and bust economy throughout this period is often exemplified as the "sugar cycle" when the international market for sugar is good, the economy booms, when the market is bad, it is hard times for all and particularly for the impoverished. Sugar has always been the principal example of the boom or bust cycle, but there has, from time to time been a similar cycle in cotton. Cotton was profitable during the U.S. War of Independence, the War of 1812, and the U.S. Civil War. Each time the bust in Pernambuco came when U.S. growers resumed their exports.[21]
A sugar millengenho requires a large investment both to build and to operate. Much of the time the money is borrowed. Although there were other sources, one source that was a particular irritant to mill owners were the merchants of Recife. In 1710 this irritant resulted in theMascate War. This conflict set themascates from Recife against the establishment planters of Olinda It was led by theSenhores de Engenho (owners of the sugar mills). It is an example of the continuing tensions between the senhores de engenho (the landed elites) in colonial Brazil and the merchants of Recife. The "War" (there was considerable shooting but little loss of life) has elements of class struggle. Olinda had, before the Dutch, always been the municipal seat. Recife, once merely a port facility for Olinda, had formerly consisted of a few modest dwellings, warehouses, and businesses catering to ships and seamen, but under the Dutch had been developed into a thriving center of commerce populated by wealthy, more recently arrived merchants to whom most of the landed aristocracy of Pernambuco were heavily indebted. After several excesses the king issued a new set of instructions to the governor. In 1715 the crown dispatched a new governor and the residents of Pernambuco finally felt the troubles were ended, though many families of the colony's elites were ruined.[22]
The discovery of gold in Minas Gerais late in the Seventeenth Century and the discovery of diamond displaced agriculture. In fact, for all the disruption caused by "gold fever" throughout the mining boom the value of sugar exports always exceeded the value of any other export.[23] Nevertheless, among many other disruptions, gold shifted the focus South. Pernambuco, Bahia, and the entire Northeast were eclipsed by the South of Brazil and that shift in focus has never been reversed.[24]
In 1888, under the influence of increasingly urban society, and with the advocacy of intellectuals such as Pernambucan politicianJoaquim Nabuco, slavery was abolished.[25] However, freedom for the slaves did little or nothing to improve life for the underclass. Economic downturns were used to cut wages, children were paid almost nothing, and violence ruled.[26] In those days before antibiotics there were major epidemics, fourteen between 1849 and 1920.[27]
The twentieth century did bring better communication and transportation which would slowly allow development. But for the poor employed in the sugar industry, as late as the 1960s infant mortality in this labor segment was nearly half of live births.[28] Politically, the century was dominated by two periods of dictatorship, ruled byGetúlio Vargas for most of the period from 1930 to 1954.[29] and the military dictatorship from 1964 to 1985[30]
Since the end of military rule, there is still an underemployed and under-fed underclass. However, quality of life has improved along with industrial development. Pernambuco has also become a major tourist destination. Statistics from the turn of the millennium show a sharp and continuing improvement. According to estimates from theGlobal Burden of Disease Study, theinfant mortality rate declined 6.2 percent annually between 1990 and 2015: from 90.4 infant deaths per 1000 live births in 1990, to 13.4 deaths/1000 live births in 2015.[31] The homicide rate in Recife, still higher than the average for Brazil, declined by about 6% per annum during the period from 2000 to 2012.[32]
Income inequality remains a problem; in 2000, the state had a Gini coefficient of 0.59,[33] with wealth and resources being concentrated at the top.
The185 municipalities that make up the state have similar structures, though they lack the judicial branch. Each municipality has a chief executive, analogous to mayor, called aPrefeito/Prefeita, while the legislative branch is called theCâmara Municipal.
Municipal officials also serve four year terms, with the most recent being held in2020.
914,954 hadno religion (10.40%): of these, 10,284 identified asatheists (0.12%) and 5,638 asagnostics (0.06%). 80,591 followed all other religions not listed above (0.90%), and 9,805 did not know or did not declare (0.12%).[36][37]
The results of the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) conducted in 2022 led to the following estimates ofrace or skin color: 5,006,802Brown (Multiracial) people (55.3%), 3,043,916White people (33.6%), 909,557Black people (10.0%), 83,667Indigenous people (0.9%) and 13,225Asian people (0.1%).[38]
Due to the legacy of slavery and the sugarcane plantations, it has been observed that those of mixedAfrican andPortuguese ancestry are more common on the coast, whileMamelucos (those of mixedAmerindian and Portuguese ancestry) are more common in the interiorSertão region.[39]
According to a genetic study from 2013, Pernambucans have 56.8% European, 27.9% African and 15.3% Amerindian ancestries.[40]
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.
Local health care training by theOlinda local administration
Pernambuco is served by many higher education institutions, concentrated in Recife. Most universities and colleges were founded in the 19th and 20th century, and some are known nationally.
Many institutions are composed of several autonomous campuses serving the entire state, however Recife remains undeniably the center of education.
Important institutions include:
Headquartered in Recife:
TheFederal University of Pernambuco (Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, UFPE), which now contains the historical College of Law of Recife, public, federally-funded
Theservice sector is the largest component of GDP at 73.2%, followed by theindustrial sector at 21.6%.Agribusiness represents 5.2% of GDP (2006). Pernambuco exports: sugar 35.6%, fruit and juice 12.6%, fish andcrustacean 12.3%, electric products 11.1%,chemicals 7.1%,woven 5.6% (2002).
According withIBGE, in 2007Pernambuco has 2.34% share of the Brazilian economy and 17.9% share of theNortheast region economy. It's the 10th largest economy of the wholecountry. The GDP for the state was R$104,394,000,000 (2011), and the per capita income was R$11,776.
The economy is based on agriculture (sugarcane, manioc), livestock farming and creations, as well as industry (shipbuilding, automotive, chemical, metallurgical, electronic, textile, alimentary). In the period of October 2005 to October 2006, the industrial growth of the state was the second biggest inBrazil – 6.3%, more than double the national average in the same period (2.3%). Another segment that deserves to be highlighted is mineral extraction. The pole gesseiro of Araripina is the supplier from 95% of the plaster consumed in Brazil. The pole of data processing of the Recife, Digital Port, despite having started in 2000, is one of the five biggest in Brazil. It employs around three thousand persons, and has 3.5% the GDP of the state.
Pernambuco was once the 5th largest producer ofsugarcane in Brazil, but today it ranks 8th, behindSão Paulo,Goiás,Minas Gerais,Mato Grosso do Sul,Paraná,Mato Grosso andAlagoas.[46] Brazil is the second largest producer of alcohol fuel in the world, typically fermenting ethanol fromsugarcane andsugar beets. The country produces a total of 18 billion liters annually, of which 3.5 billion are exported, 2 billion of them to the US. Alcohol-fueled cars started in the Brazilian market in 1978 and became quite popular because of heavy subsidy, but in the 80s prices rose and gasoline regained the leading market share.But from 2004 on, alcohol rapidly increased its market share once again because of new technologies involvinghybrid fuel car engines called "Flex" by all major car manufacturers (Volkswagen,General Motors,Ford,Peugeot,Honda,Citroën,Fiat, etc.). "Flex" engines work with gasoline, alcohol or any mixture of both fuels. As of February 2007, approximately 80% of new vehicles sold in Brazil are hybrid fuel powered. Because of the Brazilian lead in production and technology, many countries became very interested in importing alcohol fuel and adopting the "Flex" vehicle concept.
In 2018, Pernambuco had an industrial GDP of R$32.4 billion, equivalent to 2.5% of the national industry and employing more than 280,000 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (20%), Public Utilities Industrial Services, such as Electricity and Water (17%), Food (14.9%), Petroleum derivatives and biofuels (9.3%) and Motor vehicles (8.8%). These 5 sectors concentrate 70% of the state's industry. In only 3 places in the Brazilian Northeast Region, there is some relevant industrial production, one of them being the surroundings of Recife. However, the state continues to have little participation in the Brazilian economy, with the population largely concentrated on the coast.[47]
Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport has been open since July 2004 and has 52 thousand square meters of area. The largest airport in the North and Northeast regions, Guararapes had its capacity expanded from 5 million to 11 million passengers a year. Now there are 64 check-in counters, versus the former terminal's 24. The shopping and leisure area was also totally remodeled, within the "Aeroshopping" concept, which transforms an airport into a center for business and retail. The commercial spaces will be occupied in steps and the final total will be 142 shops. Since 2000, Recife has had the longest runway in the Northeast, at 3,305 meters. Its extension permits operations with jumbo jets, such as the Boeing 747-400, able to fly nonstop to anywhere in South and Central America, Africa and parts of Europe, the United States and Canada.
Pernambuco is also served by thePetrolina International Airport, which is responsible for the delivery of fresh fruit from theSão Francisco valley to Europe and the US. The cargo terminal operates with 6 large coolers[48] with 17000 boxes capacity each plus 2 coolers tunnels. This airports also has daily direct connections between this region (which includes 53 municipalities from the states such as Pernambuco, Piaui and Bahia) to major capitals asRecife and Salvador. Like theRecife airport, it is administered by the Brazilian Federal Agency (Infraero).
Other locally administered airports within the state are theFernando de Noronha Airport and theCaruaru airports. Fernando de Noronhha has daily flights between theislands with Recife and Natal, and the second airport connects the textile industry region of Caruaru with São Paulo and local cities.
Suape port. Suape serves shipscargo 365 days a year without any restrictions in regards to tidal schedules. To assist in the docking operation of the ships, the port offers a monitoring system and laser ship docking system that enables effective, secure control and upholds the same technical standards as the most important ports across the globe. The port moves over 8.4 million tons of cargo a year[49] (has increased 7 times since 1992). The liquid granary (petroleum by-products, chemical products, alcohols, vegetable oils, etc.) constitutes more than 80% of the movement. The port can serve ships of up to 170,000 tpb and operational draft of 14.50 m. With 27 km2 (10 sq mi) of backport, the internal and external ports offer the necessary conditions for serving large ships. The access canal has 5,000m of extension, 300m in width and 16.5m in length.
Suape has started in the 21st century to be Pernambuco's motive power toward development. Huge national and international investments are being attracted by its logistic qualities, of which, until 2010, more than US$10 billion are expected.
Recife Port handlescruises and cargo. National and international cruises are made in this port, mainly of those connectingFernando de Noronha islands withBrazil,Caribbean islands and South America. The Brazilian and foreign tourists who come toRecife on a cruise ship will use a newPassengers Terminal (2009)[50] with stores, food court and information kiosks. Also, will have an increase in depth from 8.4 m to 11.5 meters deep, what originates will no longer be necessary to do transfer between large and small ships as before.
There are two access channels to thePort, both of natural characteristics. The main one,South Channel, has 260 m of width and 3.4 km (2.1 mi) of extension approximately, with a depth of 10.5 m. The other, denominatedNorth Channel, has little width, about 1.00 km (0.62 mi) of length, and a depth of 6.5 m, and it is used only by small size vessels. Handles an average of 2.2 million tons[51] of cargo annually, and the main loads are sugar, wheat, corn, barley, malt, fertilizers, clinker and kelp.
Freight trains are operated byTransnordestina Logística [pt], formerly theCompanhia Ferroviária do Nordeste (CFN), and mainly hauls iron ore, petroleum, and cement. The company won a 30-year concession following the privatization of theRFFSA in 1997, and also serves neighboring states ofCeará andPiauí.[52] The network is built tometre gauge, and is 1,753 kilometres (1,089 mi) long.[53]
TheRecife Metro, opened in 1985, has five lines and is operated by the federally-controlledCompania Brasileira de Trens Urbanos (CBTU).
The four-day period beforeLent leading up toAsh Wednesday iscarnival time inBrazil. Rich and poor alike forget their cares as they party in the streets. Pernambuco has large Carnaval celebrations, including thefrevo, typical Pernambuco music. Another carnaval music style from Pernambuco ismaracatu.
The cities of Recife and Olinda hold the most authentic and democratic carnaval celebrations in Brazil. The largest carnaval parade in all of Brazil isGalo da Madrugada, which takes place in downtown Recife in the Saturday of carnaval. Another event is theNoite dos Tambores Silenciosos.
Recife's joyous Carnaval is nationally known, attracting thousands of people every year. The party starts a week before the official date, with electric trios "shaking" the Boa Viagem district.
On Friday, people take to the streets to enjoy themselves to the sound of frevo and to dance with maracatu, ciranda, caboclinhos, afoxé, reggae and manguebeat (cultural movement created in Recife during the 1990s) groups. There are still many other entertainment centres around the city, featuring local and national artists.
Giant Dolls - Olinda Carnival
One of the highlights is Saturday when more than one million people follow the Galo da Madrugada group. From Sunday to Monday, there is the Night of the Silent Drums, on the Pátio do Terço, where Maracatus honor slaves that died in prisons.
Festa Junina was introduced to NortheasternBrazil by thePortuguese, for whom Saint John's day (also celebrated asMidsummer Day in several European countries), on 24 June, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Differently, of course, from what happens on the EuropeanMidsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during thesummer solstice, but during the tropicalwinter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after 12 June, on the eve of Saint Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there arebonfires,fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets. Once exclusively a rural festival, today, in Brazil, it is largely a city festival during which people joyfully and theatrically mimic peasant stereotypes and clichés in a spirit of jokes and good times. Typical refreshments and dishes are served, includingcanjica andpamonha. Like during Carnival, these festivities involve costume-wearing (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). Like what happens onMidsummer and Saint John's Day in Europe,bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil.
Saint John's Day is celebrated throughout Pernambuco. Nonetheless, the festivities inCaruaru are by far the largest in the state. Saint John's festivals inGravatá andCarpina are also popular.[citation needed]
In the hilly areas of the interior – mainly in areas with a micro-climate of altitude – temperatures that can reach 8 °C in the winter. Every winter, when the weather is milder, tourists from neighboring states and other parts of Pernambuco visit cities such asGaranhuns,Gravatá,Triunfo,Taquaritinga do Norte andBrejo da Madre de Deus.
The city of Garanhuns holds an annual Winter Festival, in the month of July. The main attractions are concerts, dances,rural tourism, culinary and the relatively low temperatures for a tropical climate.
The Pernambuco coastline is 187 km long. There are about 187 kilometers (116 mi) ofbeaches, including atPorto de Galinhas, Carneiros and Calhetas.
Fernando de Noronha, an isolated group of 21 volcanic islands approximately 540 km from Recife. The main islands are the visible parts of a range of submerged mountains, islets and rocks. The Archipelago of Fernando de Noronha hosts ecological sites ideal for exuberant marine animal life, due to its geographic location far from the continent and well within the path of the Southern Equatorial Currents, as well as the nature of its climate.
Porto de Galinhas. It features warm clear water pools scattered around its coral reefs, estuaries, mangroves, coconut trees and a number of other samples of abundant nature richness make Porto de Galinhas a place not to be missed or forgotten.
Boa Viagem. Located in the privileged southern Recife metropolitan area, Boa Viagem is the most important and frequented beach in town. It is protected by a long reef wall and has an extensive coastline.
Itamaracá island. Separated from the mainland by theCanal Santa Cruz, it has several highly frequented beaches. Among them are Forte Orange, Praia do Sossego and Pontal da Ilha. The island houses the Marine Manatee Preservation Center.
Maracaípe, a beach with big waves which hosts a phase of the Brazilian Surf Tournament. Highly frequented by surfers and neighbor to Porto de Galinhas, Maracaípe.
Tamandaré. Small waves and fine sand can be found there.
Calhetas, a small bay of difficult access. Searched for by many for diving.
Coroa do Avião, a small island in the middle of the Jaguaribe River delta, which can be reached only by boat or raft, from Recife or Itamaracá.
Football was introduced to Pernambuco in 1902, when English andDutch sailors disembarked in Recife and played a game of football in the beach. The novelty awoke the interest of the people of Pernambuco, that soon adhered to the game. Recife provides visitors and residents with various sport activities; the city has the largest football teams of the state of Pernambuco. There are several football clubs based in Recife, such asSport,Santa Cruz, andNáutico.
^Hemming, John,Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1978, p. 9
^Bailey W. Diffie (1987). A History of Colonial Brazil: 1500 - 1792, p 1, Krieger, Malabar, Florida.
^Francis A. Dutra (1980). A Guide to the History of Brazil, 1500-1822: The literature in English.ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, CA. p. xviii.
^Francisco Adolfo Varnhagen (1975). História Geral do Brasil antes da sua separação e independência de portugal; revisão e notas de Capistrano de Abreu e Rodolf Garcia. São Paulo. Melhormentos; Brasilia. pp. 82-97.
^Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign of Francis I by R. J. Knecht p.375Google Books
^Frei Vicente do Salvador, História do Brasil, Melhormentos; Brasilia, II, Chapter 11.
^Francis A. Dutra. "Duarte Coelho Pereira, First Lord-Proprietor of Pernambuco: The Beginnings of a Dynasty", The Americas 29:4 (April 1973), pp.415-441.
^Schwartz, Stuart B. (1985).Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia 1550 - 1835.Cambridge University Press. p. 35.
^C. R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil 1624-1654, Archon Books, 1973
^Peter Eisenberg, The Sugar Industry in Pernambuco: Modernization Without Change, 1840-1910, University of California Press, ch 1.
^C. R. Boxer, The Golden Age of Brazil: 1695-1750, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1962. Ch. V
^Stuart B Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550-1835 p. 160
^C. R. Boxer, The Golden Age of Brazil: 1695-1750, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1962
^E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, 2 ed. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 271-276
^Robert Levine, Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1937, p. 165.
^Robert Levine, Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1937, pp. 16&17
^Kit Sims Taylor, Sugar and Underdevelopment of Northeastern Brazil 1500-1970, University Presses of Florida, p. 5
^Richard Graham, "A century of Brazilian History since 1865: Issues and Problems, A. Knopf, New York, p. 137
^E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, 3 ed. Columbia University Press, New York, p. 444
^Szwarcwald, C.L., Almeida, W.d., Teixeira, R.A. et al. "Inequalities in infant mortality in Brazil at subnational levels in Brazil, 1990 to 2015."Popul Health Metrics 18, 4 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1186/s12963-020-00208-1
^D. Pereira, C.Mota, and M. Andresen, "The Homicide Drop in Recife, Brazil: A Study of Crime Concentrations and Spatial Patterns",Homicide Studies 2017, Vol. 21(1) 21&27.
^Funari, Pedro Paulo Pereira (2017), Bértola, Luis; Williamson, Jeffrey (eds.), "Inequality, Institutions, and Long-Term Development: A Perspective from Brazilian Regions",Has Latin American Inequality Changed Direction? Looking Over the Long Run, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 113–142,doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44621-9_6,ISBN978-3-319-44621-9,S2CID157455763
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