SeeArchaic humans in Southeast Asia for the earlier presence of archaic humans.

Southeast Asia was first reached byanatomically modern humans possibly before 70,000 years ago.^[1] Anatomically modern humans are suggested to have reached Southeast Asia twice in the course of theSouthern Dispersal migrations during and after the formation of a distinctEast Asian clade from 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.^[2][3]

In Asia, the most recent late archaic human fossils were found in Thailand (125,000 – 100,000 BP), thePhilippines (58,000 – 24,000 BP), Malaysia (c. 40,000 BP), andSri Lanka (c. 36,000 BP).^[4] The artifacts from these sites include partial skeleton, crania, deep skull, and other related skeletons indicate that modern human migrated to Asia earlier than the western theory might have discussed.^[5]

In 2007, an analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found inSangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This may be the oldest evidence for the presence of early humans in todayIndonesia and are to date the oldest evidence of shell tool use in the world.^[6]

In 2009, archaeologists discovered the partial cranium and some teeth of a modern human atTam Pa Ling in mainland Laos, which shed light on the understanding of anatomically modern human migration and evolution in the region during the Late Pleistocene Period.^[5] The site is located inHouaphanh Province, around 170 miles north ofVientiane, the capital city of modern Laos. Within this site, only human remains were found, and there is no evidence of human occupation or other artifacts. The radiocarbon dating of the charcoal and the sediment dating analyses identify the remains to date at least c. 56,500 BP, while the dental artifacts from the remains that analyzed by theisotope-ratio measurement indicate c. 63,600 BP.^[5] The analysis of the cranium and dentition of the remains suggest that these are the remains of early modern human populations in Southeast Asia. This date is older than the fossils that were found inNiah cave in Malaysia, which offers another explanation for human evolution in Southeast Asia.

In addition to the discovery in Laos, there are also a number of human remains and related artifacts found across mainland Southeast Asia in which it suggests the new ideas of the regional Late Pleistocene development as well. More teeth and molars that were found in Thailand and Vietnam sites (Tham Wihan Naki, Thailand; Tham Kuyean, Vietnam, etc.) indicatetransitions betweenH. erectus andH. sapiens.^[7] In fact, these remains might indicate the possible interbreeding betweenH. erectus andH. sapiens, such as the tooth at Wihan Nakin at Chaiyaphum province in Thailand.^[7]

The earliest modern human inhabitants of Southeast Asia were hunter-gatherers that arrived in the area at least c. 40,000 BP.^[8] Contemporary remnant groups of these earliest inhabitants (e.g. theSemang of Malaysia or theAetas of the Philippines) are usually included under the cover term "Negrito".^[9] The earliest settlers had sufficient maritime technology to cross theWallace Line, probably at a similar date to the first settlement ofSahul (c. 45,000 BP/49,000 – 43,000 BP).[10]^: 50 During thelast glacial maximum, the sea level decreased and promoted human migrations that increasedgenetic admixture among Southeast Asian populations. There is also evidence that Southeast Asia, which was part ofSundaland at the time, was where Papuans, Negritos and East Asians split, implying a one-wave colonization of Asia by ancestral Asians after they split from Europeans.^[11][12] According to a 2024 study, Southeast Asia was the "demographic center of expansion" after some Out of African migrantsreturned to Africa, evident by the presence of basal Y-chromosome Eurasian lineages (C, D, F, K) in the region. There is also evidence of haplogroups D and E splitting in Southeast Asia before this event.^[13]

TheNeolithic was characterized by several early migrations fromsouthern China intoMainland andIsland Southeast Asia byAustroasiatic andAustronesian-speakers.^[9][14][8]

These routes also allowed the early arrival toPhilippines and have been formally evaluated through extensivegenetic analyses.Therefore, during theNeolithic,Austroasiatic peoples populated Indochina via a variety of land routes. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivatedmillet andwet-rice emerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina.^[16] Based on archaeological and genetic evidence, it is assumed that Austroasiatic speakers also expanded into Insular Southeast Asia in the Neolithic, but were later supplanted or assimilated by Austronesian speakers^{[needs update]}.^[15]

The most widespread migration event was theAustronesian expansion, which began at around 5,500 BP (3500 BCE) from coastalsouthern China viaTaiwan. Due to their use of ocean-goingoutrigger boats and voyagingcatamarans,^[a] Austronesians rapidly colonizedIsland Southeast Asia, before spreading further intoMicronesia,Melanesia,Polynesia,Madagascar^[b] and theComoros. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, giving rise to modernIslander Southeast Asians,Micronesians,Polynesians, andMalagasy.^{[18][19][20][21]} The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BCE, settling theBatanes Islands andnorthern Luzon fromTaiwan. From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines andSoutheast Asia.^[22][23]

About 4,000 BP,Kra-Dai speakers from coastal southern China, around theGuangdong,Guangxi andFujian provinces, migrated to theGuizhou,Yunnan,Hainan, and Mainland Southeast Asia due to environmental change and demographic changes. As they migrated, they interacted with local settlements built by Austroasiatic, Austronesian,Hmong-Mien andTibeto-Burman speakers.^[24]

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised asAgrarian kingdoms^[25] had by around 500 BCE developed an economy based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone^[26] shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like thePyu city-states in theIrrawaddy river valley,Van Lang in theRed River delta andFunan around the lowerMekong.^[27] Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE endured until 258 BCE under the rule of theHồng Bàng dynasty, as part of theĐông Sơn culture eventually sustained a dense and organised population, that produced an elaborateBronze Age industry.^[28][29]

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus, that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.^[28][26] Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas.^[30]

Historians have emphasized the maritime connectivity of the Southeast Asian region whereby it can be analyzed as a single cultural and economic unit, as has been done with theMediterranean basin.^[31] This region stretches from theYangtze delta in China down to theMalay Peninsula, including theSouth China Sea,Gulf of Thailand andJava Sea. The region was dominated by thethalassocratic cultures of theAustronesian peoples.^[32][33][34]

A 2015 study (Chaubey et al. 2015) found evidence for ancient gene flow from East Asian-related groups into theAndamanese people, suggesting that Andamanese (Onge) had about 30% East Asian-related ancestry next to their original Negrito ancestry, though the authors also suggest that this latter finding may in fact reflect the genetic affinity of the Andamanese to Melanesian, Southeast Asian, and Asian Negrito populations rather than true East Asian admixture (stating that "The Han ancestry measured in Andaman Negrito is probably partially capturing both Melanesian and Malaysian Negrito ancestry"),^[36] as a previous study by the authors (Chaubey et al. 2013) indicated "a deep shared ancestry" between the Andamanese, Melanesians and Southeast Asian Negrito groups, as well as their affinity toSouth Asians,Southeast Asians andEast Asians.^[37]

A 2020 genetic study on Southeast Asian populations focusing on ethnic groups in Vietnam (Liu et al. 2020) found that most sampled groups are closely related to East Asians and carry mostly "East Asian-related" ancestry (modeled as Southern Chinese). ModernAustronesian andAustroasiatic speaking populations inVietnam andSouthern China were found to have mostly East Asian ancestry (89% to 96%, with 94% on average).Taiwanese indigenous peoples had on average 99% East Asian-related ancestry.Kra–Dai-speaking populations had, similar to the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, nearly exclusively East Asian-related ancestry.^[38]

A 2021 study about the ancestral composition of modernethnic groups in the Philippines suggests that distinctiveBasal-East Eurasian (Eastern non-African) ancestry originated inMainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000 BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively, giving rise to both Oceanian (Papuan related) and East Asian (Tianyuan and Onge related) lineages.^[3]

Another study from 2021 found that an ancient Holocene hunter-gatherer fromSouth Sulawesi had ancestry from both the Oceanian lineage (modeled by Papuans and Aboriginal Australians) and from an East Asian lineage (modeled asOnge orTianyuan related). The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% of this "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between the Andamanese Onge and the Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that the presence of this ancestry in a Holocene forager suggests that East Asian-related admixture may have taken place long before the expansion of Austronesian societies into the region.^[39]

Genetic analyses state that Southeast Asia faced four prehistoric migratory waves, impacting present demographics. The first wave was initiated by mainlandHòabìnhians,hunter-gatherer populations who share the closest genetic affinities to present-dayAndamaneseÖnge andMalaysianJehai.Denisovan ancestry was absent in these populations, although theMamanwa from thePhilippines mixed with Denisovian-shiftedPapuans. Other studies also suggest a genetic affinity between theHòabìnhians and the IkawazuJōmon.^[40] About 4 kya, Neolithic farmers from East Asia expanded into Southeast Asia and introducedAustroasiatic ancestry, which peaks in theMlabri andHtin, along with westernIndonesians, especiallyBalinese andJavanese,Temuan and Jehai. By 2 kya, additional East Asian ancestry, related to present Asian groups such asHmong,Dai,Kinh Vietnamese,Thai etc, was introduced.Austronesian ancestry was also introduced into Indonesia and Philippines by 1.8 and 2.1 kya respectively.^[41] Due to laterIndian cultural influence in Southeast Asia, populations from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar and Singapore have South Asian (SAS) ancestry (best examplified by modern South Indian groups such asIrula orMala) ranging from 2% to 16%. Exceptions were isolated hill tribes and present hunter-gatherer groups in Thailand.^[42]

Ancient and modern East Asian populations can be modeled to derive primarily from an Onge-like profile (c. 76–79%) with lower amounts ofTianyuan-like admixture (21–24%). Southeast Asian populations fall along a cline between East Asian populations and additional Onge-like ancestry associated with localHoabinhians.^[40] Ancestries related to Papuans^[43]and Jōmon peoples is also detected in Southeast Asian populations.^[44][45][46]

• Ancient East Eurasians
• Archaic humans in Southeast Asia
• Prehistoric Southeast Asia
• Models of migration to the Philippines
• Peopling of Thailand
• Austronesian expansion
• Genetic history of East Asians
• Genetic history of South Asians
• Genetic studies on Filipinos
• List of first human settlements

• Peopling of Southeast Asia

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