England itself has no devolved government. The 1990s witnessed a rise in English self-awareness.[26] This is linked to the expressions of national self-awareness of the other British nations of Wales, Scotland and, to some extent, Northern Ireland which take their most solid form in the newdevolved political arrangements within the United Kingdom – and the waning of a shared British national identity with the growing distance between the end of theBritish Empire and the present.[27][28][29]
Many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities.[30][31][32][33][34] Use of the word "English" to describe Britons fromethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004Annual Population Survey, theOffice for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their perceivednational identity. They found that while 58% ofwhite people in England described their nationality as "English", non-white people were more likely to describe themselves as "British".[35] However, in the2021 United Kingdom census, 58.4% of respondants identified as "British" instead of "English" to 14.9%. Although, the Office for National Statistics states the reason for this change may partially be true, it is most likely due to changes to the question structure where "British" became the top response option in 2021 for England only.[36]
It is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. The words "English" and "British" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, especially outside the UK. In his study of English identity,Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say "English, I mean British". He notes that this slip is normally made only by the English themselves and by foreigners: "Non-English members of the United Kingdom rarely say 'British' when they mean 'English'". Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of England's dominant position with the UK, it is also "problematic for the English [...] when it comes to conceiving of their national identity. It tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles".[37]
When theOxford History of England was launched a generation ago, "England" was still an all-embracing word. It meant indiscriminately England and Wales; Great Britain; the United Kingdom; and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of aGreat Power and indeed continue to do so.Bonar Law, by origin aScotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as "Prime Minister of England" [...] Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of "England" except for a geographic area brings protests, especially from theScotch.[38]
However, although Taylor believed this blurring effect was dying out, in his bookThe Isles: A History (1999),Norman Davies lists numerous examples in history books of "British" still being used to mean "English" and vice versa.[39]
In December 2010,Matthew Parris inThe Spectator, analysing the use of "English" over "British", argued that English identity, rather than growing, had existed all along but has recently been unmasked from behind a veneer of Britishness.[40]
Recent genetic studies have suggested that Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by a population from North Continental Europe characterised by theBell Beaker culture around 2400 BC, associated with theYamnaya people from thePontic-Caspian Steppe.[citation needed] This population lacked genetic affinity to some other Bell Beaker populations, such as the Iberian Bell Beakers, but appeared to be an offshoot of theCorded Ware single grave people, as developed in Western Europe.[44][45] It is currently unknown whether these Beaker peoples went on to develop Celtic languages in theBritish Isles, or whether later Celtic migrations introduced Celtic languages to Britain.[46]
The close genetic affinity of these Beaker people to Continental North Europeans means that British and Irish populations cluster genetically very closely with other Northwest European populations, regardless of how much Anglo-Saxon and Viking ancestry was introduced during the 1st millennium.[clarification needed][47][44]
The influence of later invasions and migrations on the English population has been debated, as studies that sampled only modern DNA have produced uncertain results and have thus been subject to a large variety of interpretations.[48][49][50] More recently, however, ancient DNA has been used to provide a clearer picture of the genetic effects of these movements of people.
One 2016 study, using Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon era DNA found at grave sites in Cambridgeshire, calculated that ten modern day eastern English samples had 38% Anglo-Saxon ancestry on average, while ten Welsh and Scottish samples each had 30% Anglo-Saxon ancestry, with a large statistical spread in all cases. However, the authors noted that the similarity observed between the various sample groups was likely to be due to more recent internal migration.[51]
Another 2016 study conducted using evidence from burials found in northern England, found that a significant genetic difference was present in bodies from the Iron Age and the Roman period on the one hand, and the Anglo-Saxon period on the other. Samples from modern-day Wales were found to be similar to those from the Iron Age and Roman burials, while samples from much of modern England, East Anglia in particular, were closer to the Anglo-Saxon-era burial. This was found to demonstrate a "profound impact" from the Anglo-Saxon migrations on the modern English gene pool, though no specific percentages were given in the study.[13]
A third study combined the ancient data from both of the preceding studies and compared it to a large number of modern samples from across Britain and Ireland. This study found that modern southern, central and eastern English populations were of "a predominantly Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry" while those from northern and southwestern England had a greater degree of indigenous origin.[52]
A major 2020 study, which used DNA from Viking-era burials in various regions across Europe, found that modern English samples showed nearly equal contributions from a native British "North Atlantic" population and a Danish-like population. While much of the latter signature was attributed to the earlier settlement of the Anglo-Saxons, it was calculated that up to 6% of it could have come from Danish Vikings, with a further 4% contribution from a Norwegian-like source representing the Norwegian Vikings. The study also found an average 18% admixture from a source further south in Europe, which was interpreted as reflecting the legacy of French migration under the Normans.[53]
A landmark 2022 study titled "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool", found the English to be of plurality Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry, with heavy nativeCeltic Briton, and newly confirmed medieval French admixture. Significant regional variation was also observed.[54]
The first people to be called "English" were theAnglo-Saxons, a group of closely relatedGermanic tribes that began migrating to eastern and southern Britain, from southern Denmark and northern Germany, in the 5th century AD, after theRomans had withdrawn from Britain. The Anglo-Saxons gave their name to England ("Engla land", meaning "Land of the Angles") and to the English.
The Anglo-Saxons arrived in a land that was already populated by people commonly referred to as the "Romano-British"—the descendants of the native Brittonic-speaking population that lived in the area of Britain under Roman rule during the 1st–5th centuries AD. The multi-ethnic nature of theRoman Empire meant that small numbers of other peoples may have also been present in England before the Anglo-Saxons arrived. There is archaeological evidence, for example, of an early North African presence in a Roman garrison atAballava, nowBurgh-by-Sands, in Cumbria: a 4th-century inscription says that the Roman military unit "Numerus Maurorum Aurelianorum" ("unit of Aurelian Moors") from Mauretania (Morocco) was stationed there.[55] Although the Roman Empire incorporated peoples from far and wide, genetic studies suggest the Romans did not significantly mix into the British population.[56]
Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiplepetty kingdoms
The exact nature ofthe arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and their relationship with the Romano-British is amatter of debate. The traditional view is that a mass invasion by various Anglo-Saxon tribes largely displaced the indigenous British population in southern and eastern Britain (modern-day England with the exception ofCornwall). This is supported by the writings ofGildas, who gives the only contemporary historical account of the period, and describes the slaughter and starvation of native Britons by invading tribes (aduentus Saxonum).[57] Furthermore, the English language contains no more than a handful of words borrowed fromBrittonic sources.[58]
This view was later re-evaluated by some archaeologists and historians, with a more small-scale migration being posited, possibly based around an elite of male warriors that took over the rule of the country and gradually acculturated the people living there.[59][60][61] Within this theory, two processes leading to Anglo-Saxonisation have been proposed. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world, where a politically and socially powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority. This process is usually termed "elite dominance".[62] The second process is explained through incentives, such as theWergild outlined in the law code of Ine of Wessex which produced an incentive to become Anglo-Saxon or at least English speaking.[63] Historian Malcolm Todd writes, "It is much more likely that a large proportion of the British population remained in place and was progressively dominated by a Germanic aristocracy, in some cases marrying into it and leaving Celtic names in the, admittedly very dubious, early lists of Anglo-Saxon dynasties. But how we identify the surviving Britons in areas of predominantly Anglo-Saxon settlement, either archaeologically or linguistically, is still one of the deepest problems of early English history."[64]
An emerging view is that the degree of population replacement by the Anglo-Saxons, and thus the degree of survival of the Romano-Britons, varied across England, and that as such the overall settlement of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons cannot be described by any one process in particular. Large-scale migration and population shift seems to be most applicable in the cases of eastern regions such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire,[65][66][67][68][69] while in parts of Northumbria, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites.[70][71] In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox found that the migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons moving to the less fertile hill country and becoming acculturated over a longer period. Fox describes the process by which English came to dominate this region as "a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models."[72]
From about 800 AD, waves ofDanish Viking assaults on the coastlines of theBritish Isles were gradually followed by a succession of Danish settlers in England. At first, the Vikings were very much considered a separate people from the English. This separation was enshrined whenAlfred the Great signed theTreaty of Alfred and Guthrum to establish the Danelaw, a division of England between English and Danish rule, with the Danes occupying northern and eastern England.[73]
However, Alfred's successors subsequently won military victories against the Danes, incorporating much of the Danelaw into the nascent kingdom of England. Danish invasions continued into the 11th century, and there were both English and Danish kings in the period following the unification of England (for example,Æthelred II[a] (978–1013 and 1014–1016) was English butCnut (1016–1035) was Danish).
Gradually, the Danes in England came to be seen as 'English'. They had a noticeable impact on the English language: many English words, such asanger,ball,egg,got,knife,take, andthey, areof Old Norse origin,[74] and place names that end in-thwaite and-by are Scandinavian in origin.[75]
The English population was not politically unified until the 10th century. Before then, there were a number ofpetty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into aheptarchy of seven states, the most powerful of which wereMercia andWessex. The Englishnation state began to form when the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united against Danish Viking invasions, which began around 800 AD. Over the following century and a half England was for the most part a politically unified entity, and remained permanently so after 954.
The nation of England was formed in 12 July 927 byÆthelstan of Wessex after the Treaty ofEamont Bridge,[76][77][78] as Wessex grew from a relatively small kingdom in the South West to become the founder of the Kingdom of the English, incorporating all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Danelaw.[79]
TheNorman conquest of England during 1066 brought Anglo-Saxon and Danish rule of England to an end, as the newFrench-speakingNorman elite almost universally replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and church leaders. After the conquest, "English" normally included all natives of England, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian or Celtic ancestry, to distinguish them from the Norman invaders, who were regarded as "Norman" even if born in England, for a generation or two after the Conquest.[80] The Norman dynasty ruled England for 87 years until the death ofKing Stephen in 1154, when the succession passed toHenry II,House of Plantagenet (based in France), and England became part of theAngevin Empire until its collapse in 1214.
Anglo-Norman andLatin continued to be the two languages used officially by the Plantagenet kings untilEdward I came to the throne, whenMiddle English became used in official documents, but alongside Anglo-Norman and Latin.[81][82] Over time the English language became more important even in the court, and the Normans were gradually assimilated, until, by the 14th century, both rulers and subjects regarded themselves as English and spoke the English language.[83]
Despite the assimilation of the Normans, the distinction between 'English' and 'French' people survived in some official documents long after it had fallen out of common use, in particular in the legal processPresentment of Englishry (a rule by which ahundred had to prove an unidentified murdered body found on their soil to be that of an Englishman, rather than a Norman, if they wanted to avoid a fine). This law was abolished in 1340.[84]
Since the 18th century, England has been one part of a wider political entity covering all or part of the British Isles, which today is called the United Kingdom.Wales wasannexed by England by theLaws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, which incorporated Wales into the English state.[85] A new British identity was subsequently developed whenJames VI of Scotland becameJames I of England as well, and expressed the desire to be known as the monarch of Britain.[86]
In 1707, England formed a union withScotland by passing anAct of Union in March 1707 that ratified theTreaty of Union. TheParliament of Scotland had previously passed its own Act of Union, so theKingdom of Great Britain was born on 1 May 1707. In 1801, anotherAct of Union formed a union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and theKingdom of Ireland, creating theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, about two-thirds of the Irish population (those who lived in 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland), left the United Kingdom to form theIrish Free State. The remainder became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, although this name was not introduced until 1927, after some years in which the term "United Kingdom" had been little used.[citation needed]
Throughout the history of the UK, the English have been dominant in population and in political weight. As a consequence, notions of 'Englishness' and 'Britishness' are often very similar. At the same time, after the Union of 1707, the English, along with the other peoples of the British Isles, have been encouraged to think of themselves as British rather than to identify themselves with the constituent nations.[87]
England has been the destination of varied numbers of migrants at different periods from the 17th century onwards. While some members of these groups seek to practise a form of pluralism, attempting to maintain a separate ethnic identity, others haveassimilated andintermarried with the English. SinceOliver Cromwell'sresettlement of the Jews in 1656, there have been waves ofJewish immigration fromRussia in the 19th century and from Germany in the 20th.[88]
After the French kingLouis XIV declaredProtestantism illegal in 1685 in theEdict of Fontainebleau, an estimated 50,000 ProtestantHuguenots fled to England.[89] Due to sustained and sometimes mass emigration of theIrish, current estimates indicate that around 6 million people in the UK have at least one grandparent born in the Republic of Ireland.[90]
There has been a smallblack presence in England since the 16th century due to theslave trade,[91] and a smallIndian presence since at least the 17th century because of theEast India Company[92] andBritish Raj.[91]Black andAsian populations have only grown throughout the UK generally, as immigration from the British Empire and the subsequentCommonwealth of Nations was encouraged due to labour shortages during post World War II rebuilding.[93]However, these groups are often still considered to be ethnic minorities and research has shown that black and Asian people in the UK are more likely to identify as British rather than with one of the state's four constituent nations, including England.[94]
A nationally representative survey published in June 2021 found that a majority of respondents thought that being English was not dependent on race. 77% of white respondents in England agreed that "Being English is open to people of different ethnic backgrounds who identify as English", whereas 14% were of the view that "Only people who are white count as truly English". Amongst ethnic minority respondents, the equivalent figures were 68% and 19%.[95] Research has found that the proportion of people who consider being white to be a necessary component of Englishness has declined over time.[96]
The 1990s witnessed a resurgence of English national identity.[97] Survey data shows a rise in the number of people in England describing their national identity as English and a fall in the number describing themselves as British.[98] Today, black and minority ethnic people of England still generally identify as British rather than English to a greater extent than their white counterparts;[99] however, groups such as theCampaign for an English Parliament (CEP) suggest the emergence of a broader civic and multi-ethnic English nationhood.[100] Scholars and journalists have noted a rise in English self-consciousness, with increased use of theEnglish flag, particularly at football matches where theUnion flag was previously more commonly flown by fans.[101][102]
This perceived rise in English self-consciousness has generally been attributed to thedevolution in the late 1990s of some powers to theScottish Parliament andNational Assembly for Wales.[97] In policy areas for which the devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have responsibility, the UK Parliament votes on laws that consequently only apply to England. Because the Westminster Parliament is composed of MPs from throughout the United Kingdom, this has given rise to the "West Lothian question", a reference to the situation in which MPs representing constituencies outside England can vote on matters affecting only England, but MPs cannot vote on the same matters in relation to the other parts of the UK.[103] Consequently, groups such as the CEP have called for the creation of adevolved English Parliament, claiming that there is now a discriminatory democratic deficit against the English. The establishment of an English parliament has also been backed by a number of Scottish and Welsh nationalists.[104][105] WriterPaul Johnson has suggested that like most dominant groups, the English have only demonstrated interest in their ethnic self-definition when they were feeling oppressed.[106]
John Curtice argues that "In the early years of devolution...there was little sign" of an English backlash against devolution for Scotland and Wales, but that more recently survey data shows tentative signs of "a form of English nationalism...beginning to emerge among the general public".[107] Michael Kenny,Richard English and Richard Hayton, meanwhile, argue that the resurgence in English nationalism predates devolution, being observable in the early 1990s, but that this resurgence does not necessarily have negative implications for the perception of the UK as a political union.[108] Others question whether devolution has led to a rise in English national identity at all, arguing that survey data fails to portray the complex nature of national identities, with many people considering themselves both Englishand British.[109] A 2017 survey byYouGov found that 38% of English voters considered themselves both English and British, alongside 19% who felt English but not British.[110]
Recent surveys of public opinion on the establishment of an English parliament have given widely varying conclusions. In the first five years of devolution for Scotland and Wales, support in England for the establishment of an English parliament was low at between 16 and 19%, according to successiveBritish Social Attitudes Surveys.[111] A report, also based on the British Social Attitudes Survey, published in December 2010 suggests that only 29% of people in England support the establishment of an English parliament, though this figure had risen from 17% in 2007.[112]
One 2007 poll carried out forBBCNewsnight, however, found that 61 per cent would support such a parliament being established.[113] Krishan Kumar notes that support for measures to ensure that only English MPs can vote on legislation that applies only to England is generally higher than that for the establishment of an English parliament, although support for both varies depending on the timing of the opinion poll and the wording of the question.[114] Electoral support for English nationalist parties is also low, even though there is public support for many of the policies they espouse.[115] TheEnglish Democrats gained just 64,826 votes in the2010 UK general election, accounting for 0.3 per cent of all votes cast in England.[116] Kumar argued in 2010 that "despite devolution and occasional bursts of English nationalism – more an expression of exasperation with the Scots or Northern Irish – the English remain on the whole satisfied with current constitutional arrangements".[117]
From the earliest times, English people have left England to settle in other parts of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is impossible to identify their numbers, as British censuses have historically not invited respondents to identify themselves as English.[124][failed verification] However, the census does record place of birth, revealing that 8.1% of Scotland's population,[125] 3.7% of the population of Northern Ireland[126] and 20% of the Welsh population were born in England.[127] Similarly, the census of the Republic of Ireland does not collect information on ethnicity, but it does record that there are over 200,000 people living in Ireland who were born inEngland and Wales.[128]
English ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in theWestern world, and settled in significant numbers in some areas. Substantial populations descended from English colonists and immigrants exist in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.[citation needed]
In the2020 United States census, English Americans were the largest group in the United States with 46.5 million Americans self-identifying as having some English origins (many combined with another heritage) representing (19.8%) of theWhite American population. This includes 25.5 million (12.5%) who were "English alone" - one origin.[130] However,demographers regard this as an undercount, as the index of inconsistency[clarification needed] is high, and many, if not most, people from English stock have a tendency (since the introduction of a new 'American' category and ignoring the ancestry question in the 2000 census) to identify as simplyAmericans[131][132][133][134] or if of mixed European ancestry, identify with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.[135]
Prior to this, in the2000 census, 24,509,692 Americans described theirancestry as wholly or partly English. In addition, 1,035,133 recorded British ancestry.[136] This was a numerical decrease from the census in1990 where 32,651,788 people or 13.1% of the population self-identified with English ancestry.[137]
Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply "American" due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. Relative to ethnic groups of other European origins, this may be due to the early establishment of English settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.[139]
In theCanada 2016 Census, 'English' was the most common ethnic origin (ethnic origin refers to the ethnic or cultural group(s) to which the respondent's ancestors belong[140]) recorded by respondents; 6,320,085 people or 18.3% of the population self-identified themselves as wholly or partly English.[120][121] On the other hand, people identifying as Canadian but not English may have previously identified as English before the option of identifying as Canadian was available.[141]
From the beginning of thecolonial era until the mid-20th century, the vast majority of settlers to Australia were from theBritish Isles, with the English being the dominant group. Among the leading ancestries, increases in Australian, Irish and German ancestries and decreases in English, Scottish and Welsh ancestries appear to reflect such shifts in perception or reporting. These reporting shifts at least partly resulted from changes in the design of the census question, in particular the introduction of a tick box format in 2001.[142] English Australians have more often come from thesouth than thenorth of England.[143]
Australians of English descent, are both the single largest ethnic group in Australia and the largest 'ancestry' identity in the Australian census.[144] In the2016 census, 7.8 million or 36.1% of the population identified as "English" or a combination including English, a numerical increase from 7.2 million over the 2011 census figure. The census also documented 907,572 residents or 3.9% of Australia as being born in England, and are the largest overseas-born population.[145]
English ancestry is the largest single ancestry New Zealanders share. Several million New Zealanders are estimated to have some English ancestry[146] From 1840, the English comprised the largest single group among New Zealand's overseas-born, consistently being over 50 percent of the total population.[147]Despite this, after the early 1850s, the English-born slowly fell from being a majority of the colonial population. In the1851 census, 50.5% of the total population were born in England, this proportion fell to 36.5% (1861) and 24.3% by 1881.[147]New Zealand's foundational culture wasEnglish, given the strong representation in the mid and late-nineteenth century with the English being the largest in migration inflows.[148]
In the2013 census, there were 215,589 English-born representing 21.5% of all overseas-born residents or 5 percent of the total population and the most-common birthplace outside New Zealand.[149]In the recent2018 census, 210,915 were born in England or 4.49% of the total population, a slight decrease from 2013.[150]
William Henry Hudson was an Argentine author, naturalist, and ornithologist of English origin.
English settlers arrived inBuenos Aires in 1806 (then a Spanish colony) in small numbers, mostly as businessmen, whenArgentina was an emerging nation and the settlers were welcomed for the stability they brought to commercial life. As the 19th century progressed, more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the large-scale growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the export trade in crops and animal products and imported the luxuries that the growing Argentine middle classes sought.[151]
Since the Port of Valparaíso opened its coasts to free trade in 1811, the English began to congregate in Valparaíso. The English eventually numbered more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period during the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.[citation needed]
The culture of England is sometimes difficult to separate clearly from theculture of the United Kingdom,[152] so influential has English culture been on the cultures of the British Isles and, on the other hand, given the extent to which other cultures have influenced life in England.
Theestablished religion of the realm is theChurch of England, whose titular head isCharles III although the worldwideAnglican Communion is overseen by theGeneral Synod of its bishops under the authority ofParliament. 26 of the church's 42 bishops areLords Spiritual, representing the church in theHouse of Lords. In 2010, the Church of England counted 25 million baptised members out of the 41 million Christians in Great Britain's population of about 60 million;[153][154] around the same time, it also claimed to baptise one in eight newborn children.[155] Generally, anyone in England may marry or be buried at their localparish church, whether or not they have been baptised in the church.[156] Actual attendance has declined steadily since 1890,[157] with around one million, or 10% of the baptised population attending Sunday services on a regular basis (defined as once a month or more) and three million -roughly 15%- joining Christmas Eve and Christmas services.[158][159]
Religious observance ofSt George's Day (23 April) changes when it is too close toEaster. According to theChurch of England's calendar, when St George's Day falls betweenPalm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is moved to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.[161]
Map showing phonological variation within England of the vowel inbath,grass, anddance:
'a'[ä]
'aa'[æː]
'ah'[ɑː]
anomalies
English people traditionally speak theEnglish language, a member of theWest Germaniclanguage family. The modern English language evolved fromMiddle English (the form of language in use by the English people from the 12th to the 15th century); Middle English was influenced lexically by Norman-French,Old French andLatin. In the Middle English period Latin was the language of administration and the nobility spoke Norman French. Middle English was itself derived from theOld English of the Anglo-Saxon period; in the Northern and Eastern parts of England the language of Danish settlers had influenced the language, a fact still evident in Northern English dialects.[citation needed]
There were once many different dialects of modern English in England, which were recorded in projects such as theEnglish Dialect Dictionary (late 19th century) and theSurvey of English Dialects (mid 20th century), but there has been widespreaddialect levelling in recent time as a result of education, the media and socio-economic pressures.[162]
Cornish, aCeltic language, is one of three existing Brittonic languages; its usage has been revived inCornwall. Historically, another Brittonic Celtic language,Cumbric, was spoken inCumbria inNorth West England, but it died out in the 11th century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect.Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of theprinting press to London and theGreat Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of theBritish Empire, English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through newspapers, books, the telegraph, the telephone, phonograph records, radio, satellite television, broadcasters (such as theBBC) and the Internet, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, Modern English has become theinternational language ofbusiness,science,communication,sports,aviation, anddiplomacy.[163]
^Spellings of this name most common in modern texts are "Ethelred" and "Æthelred" (or "Aethelred"), the latter being closer to the originalOld English formÆþelræd.
^Those who self-identified as English ethnic group
^"Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales".www.ons.gov.uk.Office for National Statistics. 11 December 2012.Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved21 February 2022.The 2011 England and Wales census reports that in England and Wales 32.4 million people associated themselves with an English identity alone and 37.6 million identified themselves with an English identity either on its own or combined with other identities, being 57.7% and 67.1% respectively of the population of England and Wales.
^Census 2011: Census in brief(PDF). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. 2012. p. 26.ISBN978-0-621-41388-5.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 May 2015. The number of people who described themselves as white in terms of population group and specified their first language as English in South Africa's 2011 Census was 1,603,575. The total white population with a first language specified was 4,461,409 and the total population was 51,770,560.
^abMartiniano, R., Caffell, A., Holst, M. et al. "Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons".Nat Commun 7, 10326 (2016).doi:10.1038/ncomms10326Martiniano, Rui; Caffell, Anwen;Holst, Malin; Hunter-Mann, Kurt; Montgomery, Janet; Müldner, Gundula; McLaughlin, Russell L.; Teasdale, Matthew D.; Van Rheenen, Wouter; Veldink, Jan H.; Van Den Berg, L. H.; Hardiman, Orla; Carroll, Maureen; Roskams, Steve; Oxley, John; Morgan, Colleen; Thomas, Mark G.; Barnes, Ian; McDonnell, Christine; Collins, Matthew J.; Bradley, Daniel G. (19 January 2016)."Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons".Nature Communications.7 (1): 10326.Bibcode:2016NatCo...710326M.doi:10.1038/ncomms10326.PMC4735653.PMID26783717.
^Michael E. Weale, Deborah A. Weiss, Rolf F. Jager, Neil Bradman, Mark G. Thomas, Y "Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration",Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 19, Issue 7, July 2002, pp. 1008–1021,https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004160Archived 21 February 2022 at theWayback Machine
^Hills, C. (2003)Origins of the English Duckworth, London.ISBN0-7156-3191-8, p. 67
^Higham, Nicholas J., and Martin J. Ryan.The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press, 2013. pp. 7–19
^"Chambers – Search Chambers".Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved7 February 2022.the citizens or inhabitants of, or people born in, England, considered as a group
^"National Identity and Community in England" (2006)Institute of Governance Briefing No. 7.[1]Archived 15 May 2011 at theWayback Machine
^"78 per cent ofBangladeshis said they were British, while only 5 per cent said they were English, Scottish or Welsh", and the largest percentage of non-whites to identify as English were the people who described their ethnicity as "Mixed" (37%).'Identity',National Statistics, 21 February 2006
^Ross P. Byrne, Rui Martiniano, Lara M. Cassidy, Matthew Carrigan, Garrett Hellenthal, Orla Hardiman, Daniel G. Bradley, Russell McLaughlin: "Insular Celtic population structure and genomic footprints of migration" (2018)
^Margaryan, A., Lawson, D.J., Sikora, M. et al. "Population genomics of the Viking world".Nature 585, 390–396 (2020)See Supplementary Note 11 in particular
^Wise, Gildas the (1899)."The Ruin of Britain".Tertullian.org. pp. 4–252.Archived from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved21 August 2017.
^celtpnArchived 6 December 2007 at theWayback Machine However the names of some towns, cities, rivers etc. do have Brittonic or pre-Brittonic origins, becoming more frequent towards the west of Britain.
^Stefan Burmeister,Archaeology and Migration (2000): " ... immigration in the nucleus of the Anglo-Saxon settlement does not seem aptly described in terms of the 'elite-dominance model.' To all appearances, the settlement was carried out by small, agriculture-oriented kinship groups. This process corresponds more closely to a classic settler model. The absence of early evidence of a socially demarcated elite underscores the supposition that such an elite did not play a substantial role. Rich burials such as are well known from Denmark have no counterparts in England until the 6th century. At best, the elite-dominance model might apply in the peripheral areas of the settlement territory, where an immigration predominantly comprised of men and the existence of hybrid cultural forms might support it."
^Toby F. Martin,The Cruciform Brooch and Anglo-Saxon England, Boydell and Brewer Press (2015), pp. 174–178
^Catherine Hills, "The Anglo-Saxon Migration: An Archaeological Case Study of Disruption," inMigrations and Disruptions, ed. Brenda J. Baker and Takeyuki Tsuda, pp. 45–48
^Upward, Christopher; Davidson, George (8 December 2024).The History of English Spelling. England (published 2011). pp. 70–74.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^abBlack PresenceArchived 24 December 2021 at theWayback Machine, Asian and Black History in Britain, 1500–1850: UK government website. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
^Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006),Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857, Orient Blackswan, pp. 111–119,129–130, 140,154–156,160–168, 172, 181,ISBN978-81-7824-154-8
^Reynolds Farley, 'The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?',Demography, Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.
^Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, 'The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns',Social Science Research, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–46.
^Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, 'Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites',Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.
^Mary C. Waters,Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 36.
^Chui, Tina (April 2008).Canada's Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census(PDF). Statistics Canada. p. 7.ISBN978-0-662-48324-3. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 March 2009.the presence of the Canadian example has led to an increase in Canadian being reported and has had an impact on the counts of other groups, especially for French, English, Irish and Scottish. People who previously reported these origins in the census had the tendency to now report Canadian.
^See the pages linked from"Life Events". Church of England. Archived fromthe original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved31 October 2018..
^Bowler, Peter J. (2001).Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 194..
^"Facts and Stats". Church of England.Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved21 February 2022.
^Wolfgang Vierick (1964),Der English Dialect Survey und der Linguistic Survey of Scotland – Arbeitsmethoden und bisherige Ergebnisse, Zeitschrift für Mundartforschung 31, 333–335 inShorrocks, Graham (1999).A Grammar of the Dialect of the Bolton Area, Part 1. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 58.ISBN3-631-33066-9.
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