Various etymologies have proposed treating "Pennine" as a nativeBrittonic/Welsh name related topen- ("head", "top", "chief", etc.).[11] It did not become a common name until the 18th century, and may instead derive from modern comparisons with theApennine Mountains, which run down the middle ofItaly in a similar fashion.[12][dubious –discuss]
Following an 1853 article by Arthur Hussey,[13] it has become a common belief that the name derives from a passage inThe Description of Britain (Latin:De Situ Britanniæ),[15] an infamoushistorical forgery concocted byCharles Bertram in the 1740s and accepted as genuine until the 1840s. In 2004, George Redmonds reassessed this, finding that numerous respected writers passed over the origin of the mountains' name in silence even in works dedicated to the topological etymology ofDerbyshire andLancashire.[12] He found that the derivation from Bertram was widely believed and considered uncomfortable.[12] In fact, Redmonds found repeated comparisons with the Italian Apennines going back at least as early asWilliam Camden (1551–1623),[16] many of whose placenames and ideas Bertram incorporated into his work. Bertram was responsible (at most) with popularizing the name against other contenders such asDaniel Defoe's "English Andes".[12] His own form of the name was the "Pennine Alps" (Alpes Peninae), which today is used fora western section of the continentalAlps. Those mountains (the area around theSt. Bernard Pass) derive their name from the LatinAlpes Pœninæ whose name has been variously derived from theCarthaginians,[17] a local god,[18] andCelticpeninus.[19] The St. Bernard Pass was the pass used in theinvasions of Italy by theGallicBoii andLingones in 390 BC. The etymology of theApennines themselves—whose name first referred to their northern extremity and then later spread southward—is also disputed but is usually taken to derive from some form ofCelticpen orben ("mountain, head").[20][21][22]
Various towns and geographical features within the Pennines have names of at least partlyCeltic origin, includingPennington,Penrith,Pen-y-ghent,Pendle Hill, theRiver Eden, andCumbria. More commonly, local names result fromAnglo-Saxon andNorse settlements. In Yorkshire,Teesdale, and Cumbria, many words ofNorse origin, not commonly used in standard English, are part of everyday speech: for example,gill/ghyll (narrow steep valley),beck (brook or stream),fell (hill), anddale (valley).[23] Northumbrian/borders terms are used in South Tynedale,Weardale, andAllendale, such asburn (stream),cleugh (ravine),hope (valley),law (hill) andlinn (waterfall).
The northern Pennine range is bordered by thefoothills of theLake District, and uplands of the Howgill Fells, Orton Fells, Border Moors and Cheviot Hills. The West Pennine Moors, Rossendale Valley[4] and Forest of Bowland[5] are western spurs, the former two are in the South Pennines. The Howgill Fells[6] and Orton Fells[7] are sometimes considered to be part of the Pennines, both inside the Yorkshire Dales National Park.[24] The Pennines are fringed by extensivelowlands including theEden Valley,West Lancashire Coastal Plain,Cheshire Plain,Vale of York,Humberhead Levels and theMidland Plains.
The main range of the Pennines start from its southern end at theWeaver Hills in the Peak District.[25] The southern foothills of the range merge into the valley andbasin of theRiver Trent,[26] separating the range from the Midland Plains to the south. The Pennines continue northwards across the Peak District and adjoin the South Pennines approximately around theTame Valley,Standedge andHolme Valley. The South Pennines are separated from the Forest of Bowland by theRibble Valley, and include the Rossendale Valley and West Pennine Moors in the west.[27] The range continues further north into theAire Gap which separates the Yorkshire Dales from the South Pennines to the south and the Forest of Bowland to the southwest.[28] The main range then continues northwards across the Yorkshire Dales to theStainmore Gap where it adjoins the North Pennines. The range continues into its northern end at theTyne Gap,[29] separating it from the Border Moors and Cheviot Hills across theAnglo-Scottish border.
Although the Pennines cover the area between the Peak District and the Tyne Gap, the Pennine Way affects perceptions of the southern and northern extents of the defined area. The southern end of the Pennines is said to be in theHigh Peak ofDerbyshire atEdale, the start of the Pennine Way,[6] but the main range continues south across the Peak District to the Weaver Hills,[25] with its foothills merging into the Trent Valley.[26] This encompasses easternCheshire, northern and easternStaffordshire, and southern Derbyshire.[6][30][31] Conversely, the Border Moors and Cheviot Hills, separated by the Tyne Gap andWhin Sill to the south, along which run theA69 andHadrian's Wall, andRiver Tweed to the north,[32] are not part of the Pennines but, perhaps because the Pennine Way crosses them, they are treated as such.[6]
Most of the Pennine landscape is characterised by upland areas of highmoorland indented by more fertile river valleys, although the landscape varies in different areas. The Peak District consists of hills, plateaus and valleys, divided into theDark Peak with moorlands and gritstone edges, and theWhite Peak with limestone gorges.[33] The South Pennines is an area of hills and moorlands with narrow valleys between the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales.[34] Bowland is dominated by a central upland landform of deeply incised gritstonefells covered with tracts of heather-coveredpeat moorland,blanket bog and steep-sided wooded valleys linking the upland and lowland landscapes.[35] The landscape is higher and more mountainous in the Yorkshire Dales and North Pennines. The Yorkshire Dales are characterised by valleys, moorlands and fells[36] while the North Pennines consist of plateaus, moorlands, fells, edges and valleys, with most of the higher peaks in the west.[29]
Rising less than 3,000 feet (900 m), the Pennines arefells, with most of the mountainous terrain in the north. The highest point isCross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at 2,930 feet (893 m) and other principal peaks in the North Pennines areGreat Dun Fell 2,782 ft (848 m),Mickle Fell 2,585 ft (788 m), andBurnhope Seat 2,451 ft (747 m). Principal peaks in the Yorkshire Dales includeWhernside 2,415 ft (736 m),Ingleborough 2,372 ft (723 m),High Seat 2,328 ft (710 m),Wild Boar Fell 2,324 ft (708 m) andPen-y-ghent 2,274 ft (693 m). Principal peaks in the Forest of Bowland includeWard's Stone 1,841 ft (561 m),Fair Snape Fell 1,710 ft (521 m), andHawthornthwaite Fell 1,572 ft (479 m). Terrain is lower towards the south and the only peaks which exceed 2,000 ft (610 m) areKinder Scout 2,087 ft (636 m) andBleaklow 2,077 ft (633 m) in the Peak District. Other principal peaks in the South Pennines and Peak District includeBlack Hill 1,909 ft (582 m),Shining Tor 1,834 ft (559 m),Pendle Hill 1,827 ft (557 m),Black Chew Head 1,778 ft (542 m),Rombalds Moor 1,319 ft (402 m) andWinter Hill 1,496 ft (456 m).
For much of their length the Pennines are the mainwatershed in northern England, dividing east and west. The riversEden,Ribble,Dane and tributaries of theMersey (including theIrwell,Tame andGoyt) flow westwards towards theIrish Sea.
TheRiver Trent flows around the southern end of the Pennines and northwards on the eastern side taking water from tributaries, principally theDove andDerwent. The Trent drains the east and west sides of the southern Pennines, also reaching the North Sea through the Humber Estuary. The Trent and Ouse meet and enter the Humber atTrent Falls. Maximum discharge through the Humber can reach 1,500 m3/s (53,000 cu ft/s).[37]
More snow falls on the Pennines than on surrounding lowland areas due to the elevation and distance from the coast; unlike lowland areas of England, the Pennines can have quite severe winters.
The northwest is amongst the wettest regions of England and much of the rain falls on the Pennines. The eastern side is drier than the west—therain shadow shields northeast England from rainfall that would otherwise fall there.
Precipitation is important for the area's biodiversity and human population. Many towns and cities are located along rivers flowing from the range and in northwest England the lack of natural aquifers is compensated for by reservoirs.
Water has carved out limestone landscapes in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and Peak District, with gorges and caves present in the Yorkshire Dales and Peak District. In some areas, precipitation has contributed to poor soils, resulting in part inmoorland landscapes that characterize much of the range. In other areas where the soil has not been degraded, it has resulted in lush vegetation.
For the purpose of growing plants, the Pennines are inhardiness zones 7 and 8, as defined by theUSDA. Zone 8 is common throughout most of the UK, and zone 7 is the UK's coldest hardiness zone. The Pennines,Scottish Highlands,Southern Uplands andSnowdonia are the only areas of the UK in zone 7.
The Pennines have been carved from a series of geological structures whose overall form is a broadanticline whose axis extends in a north–south direction. The North Pennines are coincident with theAlston Block and the Yorkshire Dales are coincident with theAskrigg Block. In the south the Peak District is essentially a flat-topped dome.
Each of the structures consists ofCarboniferouslimestone overlain withMillstone Grit. The limestone is exposed at the surface in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the Dales and theWhite Peak, limestone exposure has caused the formation of large cave systems and watercourses. In the Dales the caves or potholes are known as "pots" in theYorkshire dialect. They include some of the largest caves in England atGaping Gill, more than 350 ft (107 m) deep andRowten Pot, 365 ft (111 m) deep.Titan in the Peak District, the deepest shaft known in Britain, is connected toPeak Cavern inCastleton, Derbyshire, the largest cave entrance in the country. Erosion of the limestone has led to geological formations, such as thelimestone pavements atMalham Cove.
Between the northern and southern areas of exposed limestone betweenSkipton and theDark Peak is a belt of exposed gritstone. Here the shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied bymoorland covered withbracken,peat, heather and coarse grasses;[40] the higher ground is uncultivable and barely fit for pasture.
The uplands were controlled by the tribal federation of theBrigantes, made up of small tribes who inhabited the area and cooperated on defence and external affairs. They evolved an early form of kingdom. DuringRoman times, the Brigantes were dominated by the Romans who exploited the Pennines for their natural resources including the wild animals found there.
The Pennines were an obstacle forAnglo-Saxon expansion westwards, although it appears the Anglo-Saxons travelled through the valleys. During theDark Ages the Pennines were controlled by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is believed that the north Pennines were under the control of the kingdom ofRheged.
During Norse times the Pennines were settled byViking Danes in the east andNorwegian Vikings in the west. The Vikings influenced place names, culture and genetics. When England was unified the Pennines were incorporated. The mix of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Viking heritage resembled much of the rest ofnorthern England and its culture developed alongside its lowland neighbours in northwest and northeast England. The Pennines were not a distinct politicalpolity, but were divided between neighbouring counties in northeast and northwest England; a major part was in theWest Riding of Yorkshire.
The main economic activities in the Pennines includesheep farming,quarrying, finance andtourism. In thePeak District, tourism is the major local employment for park residents (24%), with manufacturing industries (19%) andquarrying (12%) also being important while 12% are employed in agriculture.[44] Limestone is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement, while other extracted materials include shale for cement andgritstone for building stone.[45] The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited to produce bottledmineral water and there are approximately 2,700 farms in the National Park.[46] TheSouth Pennines are predominantly industrial, with the main industries including textiles, quarrying and mining,[47] while other economic activities within the South Pennines include tourism and farming.[48]
Although theForest of Bowland is mostly rural, the main economic activities in the area include farming[49] and tourism.[50] In theYorkshire Dales, tourism accounts for £350 million of expenditure every year while employment is mostly dominated by farming, accommodation and food sectors. There are also significant challenges for managing tourism, farming and other developments within theNational Park.[51] The main economic activities in theNorth Pennines include tourism, farming, timber and small-scale quarrying, due to the rural landscape.[52]
ABritish Rail train about to enter the western portal ofWoodhead 3, shortly before closure in 1981
The first of threeWoodhead Tunnels was completed by theSheffield, Ashton-Under-Lyne and Manchester Railway in 1845, engineered byCharles Vignoles andJoseph Locke. At the time of its completion in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at a length of 3 miles 13 yards (4,840 m); it was the first of several trans-Pennine tunnels including theStandedge andTotley tunnels, which are only slightly longer. The first two tunnels were replaced by Woodhead 3, which was longer at 3 miles 66 yards (4860m). It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route and completed in 1953. The tunnel was opened by the transport ministerAlan Lennox-Boyd on 3 June 1954.[54] It was designed by SirWilliam Halcrow & Partners. The line was closed in 1981.
TheTrans Pennine Trail, a long-distance route for cyclists, horse riders and walkers, runs west–east alongside rivers and canals, along disused railway tracks and through historic towns and cities fromSouthport toHornsea (207 miles/333 km).[57] It crosses the north–southPennine Way (268 miles/431 km) atCrowden-in-Longdendale.
TheNorth Pennines AONB just north of the Yorkshire Dales rivals the national park in size and includes some of the Pennines' highest peaks and its most isolated and sparsely populated areas. Other AONBs areNidderdale east of the Yorkshire Dales, and theBowland Fells, includingPendle Hill, west of the Yorkshire Dales.
The only significant unprotected section is the area betweenSkipton andMarsden.
The language used in pre-Roman and Roman times wasCommon Brittonic. During theEarly Middle Ages, theCumbric language developed. Little evidence of Cumbric remains, so it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it was distinct fromOld Welsh. The extent of the region in which Cumbric was spoken is also unknown.
DuringAnglo-Saxon times the area was settled by Anglian peoples ofMercia andNorthumbria, rather than theSaxon people ofSouthern England.Celtic speech remained in most areas of the Pennines longer than it did in the surrounding areas of England. Eventually, the Celtic tongue of the Pennines was replaced by earlyEnglish as Anglo-Saxons and Vikings settled the area and assimilated the Celts.[58]
During theViking Age Scandinavian settlers brought their language,Old Norse. The fusion of Norse influences into Old English was important in the formation ofMiddle English and hence Modern English, and many individualwords of Norse descent remain in use in local dialects, such asthat of Yorkshire, and in local place names.
The folklore and customs are mostly based onCeltic,Anglo-Saxon andViking customs and folklore.[citation needed] Many customs and stories have their origin in Christianised pagan traditions.[citation needed] In the Peak District, a notable custom iswell dressing, which has its origin in pagan traditions that became Christianised.[59]
Flora in the higher Pennines is adapted tomoorland and subarctic landscapes and climates. The flora found there can be found in other areas of moorland inNorthern Europe and some species are also found in areas oftundra. In the Pennine millstone grit areas above an altitude of 900 feet (270 m) the topsoil is so acidic,pH 2 to 4, that it can grow onlybracken,heather,sphagnum, and coarse grasses[40] such ascottongrass,purple moor grass andheath rush.[60] As theIce ageglacial sheets retreated c. 11,500 BC trees returned and archaeologicalpalynology can identify their species. The first trees to settle were willow, birch and juniper, followed later by alder and pine. By 6500 BC temperatures were warmer and woodlands covered 90% of the dales with mostly pine, elm, lime and oak. On the limestone soils the oak was slower to colonize and pine and birch predominated. Around 3000 BC a noticeable decline in tree pollen indicates that neolithic farmers were clearing woodland to increase grazing for domestic livestock, and studies atLinton Mires andEshton Tarn find an increase in grassland species.[61] On poorly drained impermeable areas of millstone grit, shale or clays the topsoil gets waterlogged in winter and spring. Here tree suppression combined with the heavier rainfall results inblanket bog up to 7 ft (2 m) thick. The erosion of peat still exposes stumps of ancient trees.[61]
"In digging it away they frequently find vast fir trees, perfectly sound, and some oaks ..."
— Arthur Young,A Six Months' Tour of the North of England (1770)[62]
Limestone areas of the Pennines in theWhite Peak,[63] Yorkshire Dales[64] andUpper Teesdale[65] have been designated as nature reserves or Important Plant Areas by the botanical conservation charityPlantlife,[66] and are nationally important for their wildflowers.
Fauna in the Pennines is similar to the rest ofEngland andWales, but the area hosts some specialised species. Deer are found throughout the Pennines and some species of animals that are rare elsewhere in England can be found here.Arctic hares, which were common in Britain during the Ice Age and retreated to the cooler, more tundra-like uplands once the climate warmed up, were introduced to theDark Peak area of thePeak District in the 19th century.
Large areas of heather moorland in the Pennines are managed fordriven shooting of wildred grouse. The related and decliningblack grouse is still found in northern parts of the Pennines. Other birds whose English breeding strongholds are in the Pennines includegolden plover,snipe,curlew,dunlin,merlin,short-eared owl,ring ouzel andtwite,[67] though many of these are at the southern limit of their distributions and are more common in Scotland.
^Poucher, W. A. (1946).The Backbone of England. A photographic and descriptive guide to the Pennine range from Derbyshire to Durham. Guildford and Esher: Billing and Sons Limited.
^Edwards, W.; Trotter, F. M. (1975).The Pennines and Adjacent Areas. Handbooks on the Geology of Great Britain (3rd ed.). London: HMSO (published 1954). p. 1.ISBN0-11-880720-X.
^Bertram, Charles (1809) [First published in 1757],"Chapter XXXIII",The Description of Britain, Translated from Richard of Cirencester, Anonymously translated & annotated by Henry Hatcher, London: J. White & Co., p. 51
^Route VII: "... This province is divided into two equal parts by a chain of mountains called the Pennine Alps, which rising on the confines of theIceni and Carnabii, near the River Trivona [Trent], extend towards the north in a continued series of fiftymiles ..."[14]
^Skipton,Camden said, was "hidden and enclosed among steep Hilles to Latium in Italie, which Varro supposeth to have been called because it lyeth close under the Apennine and the Alps". He went on to describe how "the North part ... riseth up and swelleth somewhat mountainous, with moores and hilles, but of no bignesse, which beginning here runs like as Apennine doth in Italie, through the middest of England ... even as far as Scotland, although oftentimes they change their name."
^Falileyev, Alexander, ed. (2007)."Summus P(o)eninus"(PDF).Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-Names. Aberystwyth University. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 31 July 2009. Retrieved2 May 2009.
^Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879)."Apenninus".A Latin Dictionary. Oxford; Medford: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved23 October 2013.
