| Peganum harmala | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Harmal (Peganum harmala) flower | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Sapindales |
| Family: | Nitrariaceae |
| Genus: | Peganum |
| Species: | P. harmala |
| Binomial name | |
| Peganum harmala | |
| Varieties[1] | |
| |
| Synonyms[1][2] | |
List
| |
Peganum harmala, commonly calledwild rue,[3]Syrian rue,[3]African rue,[3]esfand orespand,[4] orharmel[3] (among other similar pronunciations and spellings), is a perennial, herbaceousplant, with a woody underground rootstock, of thefamilyNitrariaceae, usually growing in saline soils intemperate desert andMediterranean regions. Its common English-language name came about because of a resemblance torue (to which it is not related). Its seeds contain a high concentration (at least 5.9% by weight) of diversebeta-carbolinealkaloids.
It has deeproots and a strong smell, finely divided leaves, whiteflowers rich in alkaloids, and smallseed capsules containing numerous dark, oily seeds. It is native to a vast region acrossNorth Africa, southern and eastern Europe, the Middle East,Central Asia, and parts of South and East Asia, and has been introduced to countries like South Africa, Mexico, France. It grows in dry, often saline or disturbed habitats, thriving from sea level to high elevations, is pollinated mainly by insects (especiallyhoney bees), disperses seeds mostly bydispersal vectors or human activity, and hosts a specializedbeetle (Thamnurgus pegani) proposed for its biological control.
Some scholars have associated it with the sacred plant calledsoma orhaoma in ancientIndo-Iranian texts and it has been described under various names by classical andmedieval sources, with archaeological evidence suggesting itsritual use dating back to at least the 2nd century BCE.[5] It was first described and illustrated in the16th century byRembert Dodoens and later classified by botanists such asGaspard Bauhin andCarl Linnaeus. It has several recognized varieties distinguished by morphological traits and geographic distribution, withlectotype designations refined over time to clarify itstaxonomy.
In the United States, it is banned or regulated as anoxious weed in several states requiring eradication, while internationally, possession and sale of the plant or itspsychoactivealkaloids are illegal or controlled in several countries, including France, Finland, Canada, and Australia. It is used as adye,incense, and intraditional medicine. It is also toxic tolivestock and difficult to eradicate.
Rue for the perennial evergreen shrub was first used in14th century English, deriving fromOld Frenchrue (13c.) and the Latinruta.[6]
Espand is derived fromMiddle Persianspand, which is thought, along with the English wordspinach, to be ultimately derived fromProto-Iranian*spanta-, 'holy' (compareAvestan𐬯𐬞𐬆𐬧𐬙𐬀,spəṇta, 'holy', and Middle Persianspenāg, 'holy'), itself thought to be ultimately derived fromProto-Indo-European*ḱwen-.[7]
It is known by many names across regions and languages—including "African rue" in North America, "harmel" in India and North Africa, "espand" in Persian, and other local names inPashto,Urdu,Turkish,Chinese,Spanish,French, and ancient Aramaic, reflecting its wide cultural and geographic significance.
It is known asاسپند inPersian, which is transliterated asespand,[4] orispand[8] but may also be pronounced or transliterated assepand,sipand,sifand,esfand,isfand,aspand, oresphand depending on source or dialect.[9][10] The Persian wordاسپند is also the name of thelast month of the year, approximately March, in thetraditional Persian calendar.[11][12]
African rue is a common name.[3][13][14][15][16]
Harmel is a name used in India,[3] Algeria,[17] and Morocco.
It is known asspilani in Pashto.[18] InUrdu it is known asharmal,ispand, orisband.[19] InTurkish it is known asüzerlik.[20] InChinese it is驼驼蒿,tuó tuó hāo,[21] or骆驼蓬,luo tuó peng.[22]
In Spain, it is calledhármala,[23]alharma orgamarza,[3] amongst dozens of other local names.[23][24] InFrench, it is known asharmal.[25]
Inclassical antiquity, it was known in Aramaic asšabbārā (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic:שברא,Classical Syriac:ܫܲܒܿܵܪܵܐ). In laterEastern Aramaic languages, it was also borrowed from the Middle Persian asspendā.[26]
It is a perennial,herbaceous,suffrutescent,hemicryptophyte plant, which dies off in the winter, but regrows from the rootstock the following spring.[13][14][15][22][27] It can grow to about 0.8 m (3 ft) tall,[13] but normally it is about 0.3 m (1 ft) tall.[14] The entire plant is hairless (glabrous).[19][22] Plants are bad tasting[22] and smell foul when crushed.[15]
Numerous erect to spreading stems grow from the crown of the root-stock in the spring,[22][23] these branch in acorymbose fashion.[19][22]
The roots of the plant can reach a depth of up to 6.1 m (20 ft), if the soil where it is growing is very dry.[14] The roots can grow to 2 cm (0.8 in) thick.[22]
The leaves are alternate,[22][27] sessile,[19] and have bristly, 1.5–2.5 mm (0.06–0.10 in) longstipules at the base.[19][27] The leaf blade is dissected/forked twice or more into three to five thin, linear to lanceolate-linear, greyish lobes.[22][27] The forks are irregular.[19] The lobes have smooth margins,[27] are 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long[19] and 1–5 mm (0.04–0.20 in) broad,[19][22] and end in points.[19]
It blooms with solitary flowers[25] opposite to the leaves on the apical parts of branches.[22] It flowers between March and October in India,[28][29][30] between April and October in Pakistan,[19] between May and June in China,[22] between March and April in Israel,[27] and between May and July in Morocco.[31] The flowers are white[19][15][17][32] or yellowish white,[19][22] and are about 2–3 cm in diameter.[19][32] Greenish veins are visible in the petals.[15] They have a threadlike, 1.2 cm longpedicel.[19] The flowers have five (10-)12–15(−20)mm long,[19][17][22] linear, pointy-ended, glabroussepals, often divided into lobes,[19][22] although sometimes entire and only divided at the end.[19][22] There are fivepetals which are oblong-elliptic,obovate to oblong in shape, (10-)14–15(−20)mm long, (5-)6–8(−9)mm broad, and ending with an obtuse apex.[19][22] The flowers are hermaphroditic, having both male and female organs.[25] The flowers usually have 15stamens (rarely fewer);[19][22] these have a 4-5mm long[19] filament with an enlarged base.[15][22] Thedorsifixed, 6mm longanthers are longer than the filaments.[19] The ovary is superior,[33] and has 3locules[22] and ends in an 8-10mm longstyle, the ending 6mm of which are triangular or 3-keeled in cross-section.[19] The ovary is surrounded by a nectary which is glabrous and has five lobes in a regular pattern.[33]
The flowers produce only a tiny amount of nectar. The nectar is rich inhexose sugars. It contains a relatively small concentration ofamino acids among which there is an especially high amount of theglutamic acid,tyrosine andproline, the last of which can be tasted by, and is favoured by, many insects. It also contains (four) alkaloids, in relatively high concentration compared to the flowers of other species, among them the toxins harmalol and harmine. The proportions and concentrations of the alkaloids in the nectar are different than in the other organs of the plant, indicating an adaptive reason for their presence.[33]
P. harmala has smallish, tricolpate pollen grains with a rugulate-reticulate surface. Theexine has asexine which is thicker than thenexine. These grains are well distinguishable from pollen of related plants (Nitraria) in Pakistan.[34]
.jpg)
The plant fruits between July and November in China.[22] The fruit is a dry, round seed capsule[19][15][35] which measures about 6–10(−15) mm in diameter,[19][35] These seed capsules have three chambers and carry more than 50 seeds.[19][32] The end of the fruit is usually somewhat sunken inwards[19][17] and retains a persistentstyle.[19]
The seeds are colored dark brown[22] to blackish-brown,[19] slightly curved, triangular, about 2 mm (0.08 in) long with an irregular surface.[19][22] Theendosperm is oily.[22]
The cells have 24chromosomes (2n), although sometimes 22 have been found.[21][22][23][36]
Peganum harmala is native to a wide area stretching from Morocco in north Africa and Spain and Italy in Europe, north to Serbia, Romania (possibly), Dagestan, Kazakhstan, south to Mauritania (possibly), Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan In Zhob district, and east to western Mongolia, northern China and possibly Bangladesh.[3][1] It is a common weed in Afghanistan,[citation needed] Iran,[4][37] parts of Israel,[38] eastern and centralAnatolia (Turkey),[20] and Morocco.[citation needed]
In Africa it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.[39] It likely does not occur in Mauritania.[39][40][41] In Morocco it is quite common and occurs throughout the country, exceptingWestern Sahara.[39][31][40][41] In Algeria it is found mostly in the north bordering Morocco and Tunisia, being absent in the south and central regions.[17][40][41] It is reasonably commonly found throughout Tunisia.[40][42] In Libya it is found in the maritime zone, especially aroundBengazi, and is not abundant.[43] In Egypt it grows in theSinai,[3][39][40] has been recorded from the east of theEastern Desert,[44] and been rarely collected on the mid-west of the Mediterranean coast.[40]
In Europe it is native to Spain, Corsica (disputed), much of Russia, Serbia, Moldova, Ukraine (especially inCrimea), Romania (possibly introduced), Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete and theCyclades), Cyprus, Turkey (Thrace) and southern Italy (includingSardinia, but notSicily). It also is native to theCaucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.[24][25][40] On theIberian Peninsula it is absent from Portugal and Andorra, but it is not uncommon in Spain, especially in the southeast, theEbro depression, and the inland valleys of theDuero andTajo, but it is rare inAndalusia (south) and it does not occur on theBalearic Islands and theCanary Islands, and in the west along the Portuguese border,Galicia, the northern coast, and the northern mountain ranges.[23][40][45]
In Turkey it is found both in Thrace and across most of Anatolia, but is absent from the northernBlack Sea coast. It is abundant in some regions of south and central Anatolia.[20]
In Israel it is most commonly found around theDead Sea, in theJudean mountains and desert, in theNegev and its surrounding areas, including areas in Jordan and Saudi Arabia, being rare or very rare in the northern mountains,Galilee, coastal areas and theArava valley.[27]
It grows in drier parts of the northern half of India[29][30][40][46] but is possibly only native to theKashmir andLadakh regions.[3][28] It also occurs in, and is possibly native to, Bangladesh.[1][47]
The distribution in China is in dispute. The 2008 Flora of China considers it to be native to northern China in the provinces ofGansu, westernHebei, westernInner Mongolia,Ningxia,Qinghai, northernShanxi,Tibet andXinjiang.[22] The 2017 Species Catalogue of China considers it to be restricted to Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Gansu.[21]
It has been added to the lists of the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species for the countries of South Africa, Mexico, France and Ukraine, although it is not reported as having a negative impact in any of these countries.[40] Most Ukrainian and other references consider the plant native to Ukraine.[24] Sources are in disagreement regarding rare collections in coastal Romania, but many consider it introduced.[1][24][40] At least 7 occurrences have been registered in South Africa, and none in Mexico (as of 2017).[40] As of 2020 it is included inSouth African National Biodiversity Institute'sPlants of Southern Africa website as an introduced plant to South Africa.[48] One database has it occurring as a non-native in Hungary.[1]
In France it is considered a former accidental introduction once uncommonly found on theCôte d'Azur along the Mediterranean coast.[25][40] It has very rarely been found elsewhere in France in the past.[40] According to theFlora Europaea there is a native population onCorsica,[24] however, according to Tela Botanica it does not occur on the island, either as a native or not.[25]
It was first planted in the United States in 1928 inNew Mexico by a farmer wanting to manufacture a dye called "Turkish red" from its seeds.[14] From here the plant spread over most of southern New Mexico and theBig Bend region ofTexas. An additional spread has occurred from east ofLos Angeles inCalifornia to the tip of southernmostNevada. Outside of these regions the distribution in the US is not continuous and localised. As of 2019 it has been reported in southernArizona (in at least 3 adjacent counties), northeasternMontana (2 adjacent counties), northern Nevada (Churchill county),Oregon (town ofPrineville in theOregon High Desert) and possiblyWashington.[15][16][49] "Because it is so drought tolerant, African rue can displace the native saltbushes and grasses growing in the salt-desert shrub lands of the Western U.S."[14]
Although the distribution in New Mexico and Texas would suggest it has spread to parts of northern Mexico,[49] the species has not been included in the 2004 list of introduced plants of Mexico.[50]
It grows in dry areas in the United States.[14][15] It can be considered ahalophyte.[27][31]
In Kashmir and Ladakh it is known from elevations of 300–2400 metres (1000' to 7900'),[28] in China 400–3600 metres (1300' to 12,000'),[22] in Turkey 0–1500 metres (0' to 5000'),[20] and in Spain 0–1200 metres (0' to 4000').[23]
In China it grows in slightly saline sands near oases and dry grasslands in desert areas.[22]
In Spain it can be found in abandoned fields, rubbish tips, stony slopes, along the verges of roads, ploughed and worked earth, as well as in disturbed, saline scrubland.[23]
In Morocco it is said to grow in steppes, arid coasts, dry uncultivated fields and amongst ruins.[31] A study in Morocco found that it could be used as anindicator species for rangeland degraded from agricultural activities, when found in association with certainArtemisia sp.,Noaea mucronata andAnabasis aphylla.[51] In Israel it is a common dominant plant along withAnabasis syriaca andHaloxylon scoparium in a low semi-shrubbysteppe ecosystem which during dry years is almost devoid of plant cover, growing on saline,loess-derived soils. In rainy timesLeontice leontopetalum andIxiolirion tataricum appear here. It also grows in Israel in semi-steppe shrublands, Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands, and deserts.[27] Between 800 and 1300 metres (2600' to 4300') elevation on the sandstone slopes of the mountains aroundPetra,Jordan, there is an open Mediterranean steppe forest dominated byJuniperus phoenicea andArtemisia herba-alba together with occasional trees ofPistacia atlantica andCrataegus aronia with common shrubs beingThymelaea hirsuta,Ephedra campylopoda,Ononis natrix,Hammada salicornia andAnabasis articulata; when this habitat is further degraded (it is already degraded) by overgrazingP. harmala along withNoaea mucronata invade.[52] It is often found withEuphorbia virgata in the foothills ofMount Ararat,Iğdır Province, Turkey.[20]
The flowers are pollinated by insects.[25] Little is known aboutpollen vectors.[33] A year-long study around the town ofSt. Katherine in theEl-Tur mountains of southernSinai foundP. harmala to be exclusively pollinated by the domesticated honey bee,Apis mellifera, although it is possible these animals are displacing native bees.[53] The floral morphology, nectar amount and composition – high inhexane sugars, presence of toxic alkaloids and high proline content together suggest pollination by short-tongued bees (seepollination syndrome).[33]
Regardingseed dispersal it is considered abarochore.[25] According to a Mongolian study, its seeds are exclusively dispersed by human activities, althoughPeganum multisectum, sometimes seen as a variety or synonym of this species, is dispersed solely by water flow.[54]
A species of tiny, hairy beetle,Thamnurgus pegani, has been found inhabiting stems ofP. harmala in Turkey and elsewhere. It feeds only onP. harmala. When the aerial parts of the plant begin to die off in the autumn, the adult beetles retreat to overwinter in the soil underneath the root-crown, or in old larval tunnels in the dead stems; emerging in the spring (May in Turkey), the females bore small holes in the now shooting stems of the plant, in which they lay their eggs. The hatched larvae bore inward toward the pith. The beetles somehow infect the surrounding tissue in the tunnels with a fungus,Fusarium oxysporum. The infected plant tissue turns blackish and is then used by the adult beetles and their larvae as a food source, until they are ready to pupate within the stem tunnels. It has been proposed as a candidate for using in biological control ofP. harmala, as a relative of it,T. euphorbiae, has been approved for use against invasiveEuphorbia in the United States.[20]
As the plant is popular in Persian cultural traditions, and is ahallucinogen, the linguists David Flattery and Martin Schwartz wrote a book in 1989 in which they theorised that the plant is the Avestanhaoma mentioned inZoroastrianism. The transcribed wordhaoma is thought to be likely related to theVedic wordsoma; these names refer to a magical, purportedlyentheogenic plant/drink that is mentioned in ancientIndo-Iranian texts but whose exact identity has been lost to history.[55][56]
This plant was first described in a recognisable manner under the nameπήγανον ἄγριον (péganon agrion) byDioscorides, who mentions it is calledμῶλυ (moly) in parts ofAnatolia (although Dioscorides distinguishes the 'real' μῶλυ as another, bulbaceous plant).Galen later describes the plant under the nameμῶλυ, following Dioscorides by mentioning numerous other names it was known by:ἄρμολα,armola (harmala),πήγανον ἄγριον and in Syriaβησασᾶ,besasa (besasa). For much of the subsequent history of Europe Galen was seen as the pinnacle of human medical knowledge. As such, during the earlyMiddle Ages, the herb was known asmoly orherba immolum.[57]
The 12th century ArabagriculturistIbn al-'Awwam fromSeville, Spain, wrote that the seeds were used in the baking of bread; the fumes being used to facilitate fermentation and help with the taste (he usually quotes older authors).[58]
By the mid-16th century,Dodoens relates how apothecaries sold the plant under the nameharmel as a type of extra-strength rue.[59]
Traces ofPeganum harmala, andNymphaea nouchali var. caerulea were identified in anEgyptian ritualBes-vase, of the 2nd century BCE.[60]
Rembert Dodoens in 1553, illustrated and described the plant (republished 1583 with better illustration, calling itHarmala, and basing his work onGalen andDioscorides).[61][62]
In 1596,Gaspard Bauhin had hisPhytopinax published in which he attempted to list all plants known in an ordered manner. He judgesRuta sylvestris Dioscorides to be a type ofHypericum.[63] Later, in hisPinax Theatri Botanici of 1623, he attempts to sort the synonymy in all the previously published names by the botanists from earlier in history. In this work, he sortsRuta into five species, distinguishing this plant from the others by its three-locular fruit, large white flowers and being only known as a wild plant (as opposed to cultivated). He considers his 'Ruta sylvestris flore magno albo' (=Peganum harmala) to be (not all writers named in the following):Tabernaemontanus', Dodoens' andClusius'Harmala;Matthias de l'Obel'sHarmala syriaca;Andreas Cæsalpinus' andConrad Gesner's (in his report onOttoman plants)Harmel;Pietro Andrea Mattioli's and Clusius' (in another work)Ruta sylvestris Harmala;Valerius Cordus' (in hisAnnotations on Dioscorides), Gesner's (in hisHortus), andAloysius Anguillara'sRuta sylvestris; andCastore Durante's andJoachim Camerarius the Younger'sRuta sylvestris secunda.[64]
In 1753,Carl Linnaeus named the speciesPeganum harmala. He cites this species as based on Bauhin'sPinax Theatri Botanici of 1623, andStirpium Historiae Pemptades Sex of 1583 by Rembert Dodoens.[65]
In 1954,Brian Laurence Burtt and Patricia Lewis designated 'Cult. in Horto Upsaliensi (Linn!)' as thelectotype for the species.[66] This lectotype appeared to be two sheets (621.1 and 621.2) in the Linnean Herbarium, not being part of a single gathering, and hence ICBN Art. 9.15 (Vienna Code) did not apply.[67] In 1993, Mohammed Nabil El Hadidi designated 'Clifford Herbarium 206,Peganum no. 1', stored at theBritish Museum of Natural History, as the lectotype forP. harmala.[68][69]
Peganum harmala var.garamantum –P. harmala var.garamantum was originally described byRené Maire in 1953 in hisFlore de l'Afrique du Nord.[39] It was still recognised as occurring in Tunisia as of 2010 (along with var.typicum),[42] although the distinction is not recognised in other works.[39]
Peganum harmala var.grandiflorum – El Hadidi describedP. harmala var.grandiflorum in 1972 for the Flora Iranica based on herbarium material collected by H. Bobek in Tal Shahdad inKerman Province, Iran in 1956, and said the variety grew in both Iran and Afghanistan. It was subsequently collected only once more, at least as recorded in the GBIF, in 1980 in Spain near the bank of theEbro river approximately halfway downriver to the sea fromZaragosa.[70][71] It is not mentioned in the Flora Iberica.[23]
Peganum harmala var.multisecta – First described byKarl Maximovich in 1889 fromQinghai.[72][73] Sometimes incorrectly spelled var.multisectum.[74][75] Occurs inDzungaria,Hexi,Qaidam Basin,Ordos and theAltai regions in China and Mongolia.[54][73] In China it occurs in the provinces of Inner Mongolia, northern Shanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Tibet[21][22] (the Flora of China claims it is endemic to China).[22] It can be distinguished by having thesepals (called 'calyx leaves' in one study) incised with 3–5 lobes, instead of being entire as in the nominate form[54][73] (P. nigellastrum, which also occurs in the region, has this characteristic even more pronounced, but with the calyx leaves split into 5–7 thin string-like lobes), and by having leaves which are more dissected or may be trisected.[54] The leaves are dissected to 3–5 lobes in the nominate form – the individual leaf lobes being 1.5–3 mm wide, whereas this variety always has more than 5 lobes 1–1.5 mm wide.[22] The nominate form has seeds with a depressed surface, whereas var.multisecta has seeds with convex surface.[54] Furthermore, the stems of this variety sprawl prostrate upon the ground, whereas the nominate has erect stems, and the variety has stems which are pubescent when young as opposed to alwaysglabrous.[22] Some consider it better to classify it as an independent species,P. multisectum (fide Bobrov, 1949).[21][54][74][75][22][76] Others consider it a synonym of the nominate form.[72]
Peganum harmala var.rothschildianum – Originally described by cactus specialistFranz Buxbaum in 1927 asP. rothschildianum from northern Africa. Subsumed as a variety byRené Maire in 1953. Not recognised for Tunisia, nor elsewhere.[39][42]
Peganum harmala var.stenophyllum – This variety is still accepted by some authorities,[30][77] although it is not recognised in the Flora of Pakistan.[19]Pierre Edmond Boissier described it in 1867[30] and it has been recognised as growing in Iran,[30][77][78]Iraq,[30] Afghanistan,[30][77][78] Pakistan,[30][77][78] India,[30][77]Tajikistan,[77] and the northernCaucasus.[77] In India it is found inKashmir,Punjab,Haryana,Rajasthan,Uttar Pradesh,Gujarat,Maharashtra andKarnataka.[30] It can be distinguished from the nominate form by having finer leaves with more narrow lobes, shorter sepals and broader-shaped seed capsules.[30][54]
In the United States, it is considered aninvasive, noxious weed in the following states: Arizona (prohibited noxious weed), California (A listed noxious weed), Colorado (A listed noxious weed), Nevada (noxious weed), New Mexico (class B noxious weed), and Oregon (A designated weed, under quarantine). This may require land owners to exterminate infestations on their land or be fined, and allows access to government grants to buyherbicides to do so. It is illegal to sell plants of this species in the states listed above.[16][79][80][81] Since 2005, with caveats, the cultivation, possession or sale of this species is alsoillegal in Louisiana.[citation needed]
Since 2005, the possession of the seeds, the plant itself, and the alkaloidsharmine andharmaline, which it contains, is illegal in France.[82] InFinland, the plant is officially listed as a medicinal plant, which means one would require a doctors prescription to acquire it. InCanada, harmaline is illegal.[83] InAustralia, harmala alkaloids are illegal.[citation needed]
In some regions, it is a common weed.[37] In China, it is seen as anoxious weed,[22] invasive in overgrazed areas.[22] In the United States, where it is not native, it is officially registered as a noxious weed or similar designation in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Oregon.[84] Infestations can be invasive and very difficult to exterminate.[14][79] It is also known as an agricultural seed contaminant. It often causes livestock poisonings,[3] especially during drought. Consumption by animals causes reduced fertility and abortions.[85] Leaves and seeds are considered poisonous due to the β-carbolines such as: harmalol, harman harmaline,harmine, andquinazoline derivatives they contain. Side effects after ingestion can manifest themselves ashallucinations, neurosensory syndromes,bradycardia,nausea, vomiting.[86]
Control is possible only with powerfulherbicides. Manually uprooting the plants is near impossible[79] and there are no methods of biological control currently awaiting approval.[20] The rootstock contains starches that help the plant survive being defoliated and is thick and grows very deep, and the crown of the plant is safe below the surface.[79]
A red dye, "Turkey red",[87] from the seeds (but usually obtained frommadder) is often used in western Asia to dye carpets. It is also used to dyewool. When the seeds are extracted with water, a yellowfluorescent dye is obtained.[88] If they are extracted with alcohol, a red dye is obtained.[88] The stems, roots and seeds can be used to make inks, stains and tattoos.[89] According to one source, for a time the traditionalOttomanfez was dyed with the extract from this plant.[23]
In Iran and neighbouring countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, dried capsules from the plant are strung and hung in homes or vehicles to protect against theevil eye.[90][9] It is widely used for protection against Djinn in Morocco (see Légey "Essai de Folklore marocain", 1926).
Esfand (called''isband'' inKashmiri) is traditionally burnt inKashmiri weddings to create an auspicious atmosphere. It is also used on other ceremonial and festive occasions, as well as in households, for its fragrant smoke and to ward off negative energies.[91]
Burning esfand seeds is also common in Persian cultures for warding off the evil eye, as inPersian weddings.[9]
InYemen, the Jewish custom of old was to bleach wheaten flour onPassover, in order to produce a clean and whiteunleavened bread. This was done by spreading whole wheat kernels upon a floor, and then spreading stratified layers of African rue (Peganum harmala) leaves upon the wheat kernels; a layer of wheat followed by a layer of Wild rue, which process was repeated until all wheat had been covered over with the astringent leaves of this plant. The wheat was left in this state for a few days, until the outer kernels of the wheat were bleached by the astringent vapors emitted by the wild rue. Afterwards, the wheat was taken up and sifted, to rid them of the residue of leaves. They were then ground into flour, which left a clean and white batch of flour.[92]
Peganum harmala has been used as ananalgesic,[93]emmenagogue, andabortifacient agent.[94][95][96]
In a certain region of India, the root was applied to kill bodylice.[46]
It is also used as ananthelmintic (to expel parasitic worms). Reportedly, theancient Greeks used the powdered seeds to get rid oftapeworms and to treat recurring fevers (possibly malaria).[97]
As related in Des Cruydboeks of 1554 byRembert Dodoens, in Europe, this plant was considered to be a wild type ofrue and identical in medicinal uses -the identity of the two plants and their Ancient Greek and Roman uses had merged, though it was considered stronger, even dangerously so. It could be bought under the nameharmel in the apothecaries, and was also known as 'wild' or 'mountain' rue. It could be used for a few dozen ailments, such as to treat woman of their natural disease[clarification needed] when the leaves were used in only water, or when the juice were drunk with wine and the leaves pressed against the wound it could cure bites and stings from rabid dogs, scorpions, bees and wasps and the like. From supposedlyPliny, he relates how those covered in the sap, or having eaten it sober, would be immune to poison for a day, as well as to poisonous beasts. Other cures were for 'drying' sperm, 'purifying' woman after childbirth, curing earache, getting rid of spots and blemishes on the skin, and soothing bumps and pain caused by hitting something, among many others. All the cures call for either juice or the leaves; none call for the seeds.[59]
Peganum harmala seeds have been used as a substitute forBanisteriopsis caapi inayahuasca analogs, as they containmonoamine oxidase inhibitors that enableDMT to be orally active.[98] It has also been used inChanga, a DMT-infused smoking blend.
| Compound | Chemical name | Dose (hallucinogen) | Potency | Dose (MAOI) | Duration |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harman | 1-Methyl-β-carboline | >250 mg | Unknown | >250 mg | Unknown |
| Harmine | 7-Methoxyharman | >300 mg | ≤50% | 140–250 mg | 6–8 hours |
| Harmaline | 7-Methoxy-3,4-dihydroharman | 150–400 mg | 100% | 70–150 mg | 5–8 hours |
| Tetrahydroharmine | 7-Methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroharman | ≥300 mg | ~33% | Unknown | Unknown |
| 6-Methoxyharmalan | 6-Methoxy-3,4-dihydroharman | ~100 mg | ~150% | Unknown | Unknown |
| 6-MeO-THH | 6-Methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroharman | ≥100 mg | ~50% | Unknown | Unknown |
| P. harmala seeds | – | ≥5–28 ga | – | 3–5 ga | Unknown |
| Footnotes:a =P. harmala seeds in ground form. They contain 2–7%harmala alkaloids, with 1 teaspoon ≈ 3 g ≈ 60–180 mg alkaloids; 1 tablespoon ≈ 9 g ≈ 200–600 mg alkaloids; and 1 large (OO) gelatin capsule ≈ 0.7 g ≈ 15–45 mg alkaloids. For comparison,B. caapi contains 0.05–1.95% (average 0.45%) harmala alkaloids.Note:Harmine and otherβ-carbolines have also been tested by non-oralroutes such assublingual,subcutaneous injection,intramuscular injection, andintravenous injection.Refs: See template page. | |||||
Total harmala alkaloids were at least 5.9% of dried weight, in one study.[99]
Constituents ofP. harmala | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Authority control databases: National |
|---|