A woman teaching geometry (detail of a XIV-century illuminated manuscript, at the beginning ofEuclid'sElementa, in the translation attributed toAdelard of Bath)
Pedagogy (/ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi,-ɡoʊdʒi,-ɡɒɡi/), most commonly understood as the approach toteaching, is the theory and practice oflearning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political, andpsychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts.[1]
Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching.[2] The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies by taking into considerationtheories of learning, understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual students.[3][4] Its aims may range from furtheringliberal education (the general development of human potential) to the narrower specifics ofvocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills).
Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation and environment, as well aslearning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be theSocratic method.[5]
The meaning of the term "pedagogy" is often contested and a great variety of definitions has been suggested.[6] The most common approach is to define it as the study orscience ofteaching methods.[6][7] In this sense, it is themethodology ofeducation. As a methodology, it investigates the ways and practices that can be used to realize theaims of education.[8][7][9] The main aim is often identified with the transmission ofknowledge. Other aims include fosteringskills andcharacter traits. They include helping the student develop their intellectual and social abilities as well as psychomotor and affective learning, which are about developing practical skills and adequate emotional dispositions, respectively.[8][10][11]
However, not everyone agrees with this characterization of pedagogy and some see it less as a science and more as anart or acraft.[6][12] This characterization puts more emphasis on the practical aspect of pedagogy, which may involve various forms of "tacit knowledge that is hard to put into words". This approach is often based on the idea that the most central aspects of teaching are only acquired by practice and cannot be easily codified through scientific inquiry.[7][12] In this regard, pedagogy is concerned with "observing and refining one's skill as a teacher".[12] A more inclusive definition combines these two characterizations and sees pedagogy both as the practice of teaching and the discourse and study of teaching methods. Some theorists give an even wider definition by including considerations such as "the development ofhealth and bodily fitness, social and moral welfare,ethics andaesthetics".[6] Due to this variety of meanings, it is sometimes suggested that pedagogy is a "catch-all term" associated with various issues of teaching and learning. In this sense, it lacks a precise definition.
According to Patricia Murphy, a detailed reflection on the meaning of the term "pedagogy" is important nonetheless since different theorists often use it in very different ways. In some cases, non-trivial assumptions about thenature of learning are even included in its definition.[7] Pedagogy is often specifically understood in relation toschool education. But in a wider sense, it includes all forms of education, both inside and outside schools.[12] In this wide sense, it is concerned with the process of teaching taking place between two parties: teachers and learners. The teacher's goal is to bring about certainexperiences in the learner to foster theirunderstanding of the subject matter to be taught. Pedagogy is interested in the forms and methods used to convey this understanding.[8][7]
Pedagogy is closely related todidactics but there are some differences. Usually, didactics is seen as the more limited term that refers mainly to the teacher's role and activities, i.e how their behavior is most beneficial to the process of education. This is one central aspect of pedagogy besides other aspects that consider the learner's perspective as well. In this wider sense, pedagogy focuses on "any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another".[6]
The wordpedagogy is a derivative of theGreekπαιδαγωγία (paidagōgia), fromπαιδαγωγός (paidagōgos), itself a synthesis ofἄγω (ágō), "I lead", andπαῖς (país, genitiveπαιδός,paidos) "boy, child": hence, "attendance on boys, to lead a child".[13] It is pronounced variously, as/ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/,/ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, or/ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/.[14][15] The related wordpedagogue has had a negativeconnotation ofpedantry, dating from at least the 1650s;[16] a related expression iseducational theorist. The term "pedagogy" is also found in the English discourse, but it is more broadly discussed in other European languages, such asFrench andGerman.[6]
In the Western world, pedagogy is associated with the Greek tradition of philosophical dialogue, particularly the Socratic method of inquiry.[17] A more general account of its development holds that it emerged from the active concept of humanity as distinct from a fatalistic one and that history and human destiny are results of human actions.[18] This idea germinated in ancient Greece and was further developed during theRenaissance, theReformation, and theAge of Enlightenment.[18]
Socrates (470 – 399 BCE) employed theSocratic method while engaging with a student or peer. This style does not impart knowledge, but rather tries to strengthen thelogic of the student by revealing the conclusions of the statement of the student as erroneous or supported. The instructor in this learning environment recognizes the learners' need to think for themselves to facilitate their ability to think about problems and issues.[19] It was first described by Plato in theSocratic Dialogues.
Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) describes a system of education inThe Republic (375 BCE) in which individual and family rights are sacrificed to the State. He describes three castes: one to learn a trade; one to learn literary and aesthetic ideas; and one to be trained in literary, aesthetic, scientific, and philosophical ideas.[20] Plato saw education as a fulfillment of the soul, and by fulfilling the soul the body subsequently benefited. Plato viewed physical education for all as a necessity to a stable society.[20]
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) composed a treatise,On Education, which was subsequently lost. However, he renounced Plato's view in subsequent works, advocating for a common education mandated to all citizens by the State. A small minority of people residing within Greek city-states at this time were considered citizens, and thus Aristotle still limited education to a minority within Greece. Aristotle advocates physical education should precede intellectual studies.[20]
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35 – 100 CE) published his pedagogy inInstitutio Oratoria (95 CE). He describes education as a gradual affair, and places certain responsibilities on the teacher. He advocates for rhetorical, grammatical, scientific, and philosophical education.[20]
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155 – 240 CE) was a Christian scholar who rejected all pagan education, insisting this was "a road to the false and arrogant wisdom of ancient philosophers".[20]
Saint Jerome (347 – 30 September 420 CE), or Saint Hieronymus, was a Christian scholar who detailed his pedagogy of girls in numerous letters throughout his life. He did not believe the body in need of training, and thus advocated for fasting and mortification to subdue the body.[20] He only recommends the Bible as reading material, with limited exposure, and cautions against musical instruments. He advocates against letting girls interact with society, and of having "affections for one of her companions than for others."[20] He does recommend teaching the alphabet by ivory blocks instead of memorization so "She will thus learn by playing."[20] He is an advocate ofpositive reinforcement, stating "Do not chide her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On the contrary, encourage her by commendation..."[20]
Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363 – 12 July 1429), theChancellor of the University of Paris, wrote inDe parvulis ad Christum trahendis "Little children are more easily managed by caresses than fear," supporting a more gentle approach than his Christian predecessors. He also states "Above all else, let the teacher make an effort to be a father to his pupils." He is considered a precursor ofFenelon.[20]
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February 17, 1827), founder of several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart".[21]
The educational philosophy and pedagogy ofJohann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) highlighted the correlation betweenpersonal development and the resulting benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens. Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical perspectives.[22] Referring to the teaching process, Herbart suggested five steps as crucial components. Specifically, these five steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application.[23] Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind.[24]
The pedagogy ofJohn Dewey (20 October 1859 – 1 June 1952) is presented in several works, includingMy Pedagogic Creed (1897),The School and Society (1900),The Child and the Curriculum (1902),Democracy and Education (1916),Schools of To-morrow (1915) withEvelyn Dewey, andExperience and Education (1938). In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good (My Pedagogic Creed, Dewey, 1897). Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student (The Child and the Curriculum, Dewey, 1902). Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. He envisioned a divergence from the mastery of a pre-selected set of skills to the cultivation of autonomy and critical-thinking within the teacher and student alike.
Confucius (551–479 BCE) stated that authority has the responsibility to provide oral and written instruction to the people under the rule, and "should do them good in every possible way."[20] One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgement rather than knowledge of rules. Other relevant practices in the Confucian teaching tradition include the Rite and its notion of body-knowledge as well as Confucian understanding of the self, one that has a broader conceptualization than the Western individual self.[25]
Ateaching method is a set of principles and methods used byteachers to enable studentlearning. These strategies are determined partly by the subject matter to be taught, partly by the relative expertise of the learners, and partly by constraints caused by the learning environment.[26] For a particularteaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to take into account the learner, the nature of the subject matter, and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about.[27]
A hidden curriculum refers to extra educational activities or side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended"[28] such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment.[29]
Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for alearning environment, a place in which teaching and learning occur.[30] The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to "classroom",[31] but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use,learning styles, configuration, location, and educational institution. They support a variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others.
Learning theories areconceptual frameworks describing how knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained duringlearning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.[32][33]
Distance education or long-distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at aschool.[34][35] Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school viapost. Today it involves online education. Courses that are conducted (51 percent or more)[36] are eitherhybrid,[37]blended[38] or 100% distance learning.Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through theWorld Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent developments in distance education.[34] A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online learning, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education.
Adapting the teaching resource should suit appropriate teaching andlearning environments, national and local cultural norms, and make it accessible to different types of learners. Key adaptations in teaching resource include:[39]
Classroom constraints
Large class size – consider smaller groups or have discussions in pairs;
Time available – shorten or lengthen the duration of activities;
Modifying materials needed – find, make or substitute required materials;
Space requirements – reorganizeclassroom, use a larger space, move indoors or outdoors.[39]
Cultural familiarity
Change references to names, food and items to make them more familiar;
Substitute local texts or art (folklore, stories, songs, games, artwork andproverbs).[39]
Local relevance
Use the names and processes for local institutions such as courts;
Be sensitive of local behavior norms (e.g. for genders and ages);
Ensure content is sensitive to the degree ofrule of law in society (trust in authorities and institutions).[39]
Inclusivity for diverse students
Appropriatereading level(s) of texts for student use;
Activities for different learning styles;
Accommodation for students with special educational needs;
Sensitivity to cultural,ethnic and linguistic diversity;
Evidence-based education (EBE) is the principle that education practices should be based on the best availablescientific evidence, with randomised trials as the gold standard of evidence, rather thantradition, personal judgement, or other influences.[40] Evidence-based education is related to evidence-based teaching,[41][42][43] evidence-based learning,[44] and school effectiveness research.[45][46]
Dialogic learning islearning that takes place throughdialogue. It is typically the result ofegalitarian dialogue; in other words, the consequence of a dialogue in which different people providearguments based onvalidity claims and not onpower claims.[47]
Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods ofteaching that shift the focus of instruction from theteacher to thestudent. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence[48] by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students.[49][50][51] Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enablelifelong learning and independent problem-solving.[52]
Critical pedagogy appliescritical theory to pedagogy and asserts that educational practices are contested and shaped by history, that schools are notpolitically neutral spaces, and that teaching is political. Decisions regarding thecurriculum, disciplinary practices,student testing,textbook selection, the language used by the teacher, and more can empower or disempower students. It asserts that educational practices favor some students over others and some practices harm all students. It also asserts that educational practices often favor some voices and perspectives while marginalizing or ignoring others.[53]
Theacademic degree Ped. D.,Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers (in the US and UK, earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed.D.,Doctor of Education, or a Ph.D.,Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, aDoctor of Music degree inpiano pedagogy).
Important pedagogues in Belgium are Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons (Catholic University of Leuven). According to these scholars, schools nowadays are often dismissed as outdated or ineffective. Deschoolers even argue that schools rest on the false premise that schools are necessary for learning but that people learn faster or better outside the classroom. Others critique the fact that some teachers stand before a classroom with only six weeks of teacher education.[54][55][56] Against this background, Masschelein and Simons propose to look at school from a different point of view. Their educational morphology approaches the school as a particular scholastic 'form of gathering'. What the authors mean with that, is the following: school is a particular time-space-matter arrangement. This thus includes concretes architectures, technologies, practices and figures. This arrangement "deals in a specific way with the new generation, allows for a particular relation to the world, and for a particular experience of potentiality and of commonality (of making things public)".[57]
Masschelein and Simons' most famous work is the book "Looking after school: a critical analysis of personalisation in Education". It takes a critical look at the main discourse of today's education. Education is seen through a socio-economic lens: education is aimed at mobilising talents and competencies (p23). This is seen in multiple texts from governing bodies, in Belgium and Europe. One of the most significant examples is quoted on page 23:
"Education and training can only contribute to growth and job-creation if learning is focused on the knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired by students (learning outcomes) through the learning process, rather than on completing a specific stage or on time spent in school." (European Commission, 2012, p.7)[58]
This is, according to Masschelein and Simons a plea for learning outcomes and demonstrates a vision of education in which the institution is no longer the point of departure. The main ambition in this discourse of education is the efficient and effective realisation of learning outcomes for all. Things like the place and time of learning, didactic and pedagogic support are means to an end: the acquisition of preplanned learning outcomes. And these outcomes are a direct input for the knowledge economy. Masschelein and Simons' main critique here is that the main concern is not the educational institution (anymore). Rather, the focus lies on the learning processes and mainly on the learning outcomes of the individual learner.
In Brazil, a pedagogue is a multidisciplinary educator. Undergraduate education in Pedagogy qualifies students to become school administrators or coordinators at all educational levels, and also to become multidisciplinary teachers, such as pre-school, elementary andspecial teachers.
Germany: A kindergarten teacher facilitates play for a group of children (1960).
In Scandinavia, a pedagogue (pædagog) is broadly speaking a practitioner of pedagogy, but the term is primarily reserved for individuals who occupy jobs inpre-schooleducation (such askindergartens andnurseries). A pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, within this restrictive definition, e.g. inretirement homes,prisons,orphanages, andhuman resource management. When working with at-risk families or youths they are referred to as social pedagogues (socialpædagog).
The pedagogue's job is usually distinguished from ateacher's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such associal or non-curriculum skills, andcultural norms. There is also a very big focus on the care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practicesocial inclusion. The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development.[59]
In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The education is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of aBachelor in Social Education (Danish:Professionsbachelor som pædagog).[60][61]
It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to the more vocational Bachelor in Social Education.
In Hungary, the word pedagogue (pedagógus) is synonymous with the teacher (tanár); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues[62]). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013, the six-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice.[63]
An article fromKathmandu Post published on 3 June 2018 described the usual first day of school in an academic calendar. Teachers meet their students with distinct traits. The diversity of attributions among children or teens exceeds similarities. Educators have to teach students with different cultural, social, and religious backgrounds. This situation entails a differentiated strategy in pedagogy and not the traditional approach for teachers to accomplish goals efficiently.[64]
American author and educatorCarol Ann Tomlinson definedDifferentiated Instruction as "teachers' efforts in responding to inconsistencies among students in the classroom." Differentiation refers to methods of teaching.[65] She explained that Differentiated Instruction gives learners a variety of alternatives for acquiring information. Primary principles comprising the structure of Differentiated Instruction include formative and ongoing assessment, group collaboration, recognition of students' diverse levels of knowledge, problem-solving, and choice in reading and writing experiences.[66]
Howard Gardner gained prominence in the education sector for hisMultiple Intelligences Theory.[67] He named seven of these intelligences in 1983: Linguistic, Logical and Mathematical, Visual and Spatial, Body and Kinesthetic, Musical and Rhythmic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal. Critics say the theory is based only on Gardner's intuition instead of empirical data. Another criticism is that the intelligence is too identical for types of personalities.[68] The theory of Howard Gardner came from cognitive research and states these intelligences help people to "know the world, understand themselves, and other people." Said differences dispute an educational system that presumes students can "understand the same materials in the same manner and that a standardized, collective measure is very much impartial towards linguistic approaches in instruction and assessment as well as to some extent logical and quantitative styles."[69]
Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of evidence and data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods[70][71][72] and various aspects of education including student learning, interaction,teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.[73]
^Crappell, Courtney (2019).Teaching Piano Pedagogy: A Guidebook for Training Effective Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 160.ISBN978-0-19-067052-8.
^abCoussée, Filip; Verschelden, Griet; Williamson, Howard (2009).The History of Youth Work in Europe: Relevance for Youth Policy Today. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe. p. 96.ISBN978-92-871-7244-0.
^Chesters, Sarah Davey (2012).The Socratic Classroom. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 35.ISBN978-94-6091-855-1.
^Barnard, Henry; Pestalozzi, Johann (1859).Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism: Life, Educational Principles, and Methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. FC Brownell..
^Kenklies, Karsten (12 February 2012). "Educational Theory as Topological Rhetoric: The Concepts of Pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart and Friedrich Schleiermacher".Studies in Philosophy and Education.31 (3):265–273.doi:10.1007/s11217-012-9287-6.ISSN0039-3746.S2CID144605837.
^Kwak, Duck-Joo; Kato, Morimichi; Hung, Ruyu (18 December 2019).The Confucian Concept of Learning: Revisited for East Asian Humanistic Pedagogies. Routledge.ISBN978-1-351-03836-2.
^Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about Teaching methods. Camberwell, Vic, ACER Press
^Martin, Jane. "What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?" The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122–139.
^Giroux, Henry and Anthony Penna. "Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum." The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 100–121.
^abKaplan, Andreas M.; Haenlein, Michael (2016). "Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster".Business Horizons.59 (4):441–50.doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.008.
^Vaughan, Dr Norman D. (2010)."Blended Learning". In Cleveland-Innes, MF; Garrison, DR (eds.).An Introduction to Distance Education: Understanding Teaching and Learning in a New Era. Taylor & Francis. p. 165.ISBN978-0-415-99598-6. Retrieved23 January 2011.
^Jones, Leo. (2007). The Student-Centered Classroom. Cambridge University Press.
^Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to Learn for the '80s. New York: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, A Bell & Howell Company.
^Pedersen, S., & Liu, M. (2003). Teachers' beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(2), 57–76.
^Griffith, M. (2010).The Unschooling Handbook: How to Use the Whole World As Your Child's Classroom (2nd ed.). New York: Prima Publishing (Random House).ISBN978-0761512769.
^Macchelein, J.; Simons, M. (2021).Looking after school:a critical analysis of personalisation in education (1st ed.). Leuven: E-ducation, Culture & Society Publishers.ISBN978-9-090106-59-5.
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