Peace dove statue inLomé,Togo, Africa. Thedove and theolive branch are the most common symbols associated with peace.[1]Statue ofEirene, goddess of peace in ancient Greek religion, with the infantPlutus
Peace is a state of harmony in the absence ofhostility andviolence. In asocietal sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom fromfear of violence between individuals or groups.[2]
The representation of peace has taken many shapes, with a variety of symbols pertaining to it based on culture, context, andhistory; each with their respective symbolism whose nature can be very complex. An example, being duringpost-violence, in contexts where intenseemotions, these symbols can form to evoke unity andcooperation, described as to fillgroups of people withpride and connection, yet the symbolism could also possibly form to conveyoppression, hatred, or else.[3]As such, a universal definition for peace does not concretely exist but gets expanded and defined proactively based on context and culture, in which it can serve many meanings not particularly benevolent in its symbolism.
"Psychological peace" (such as peaceful thinking and emotions) is less relatively well-defined, yet perhaps[further explanation needed] a necessary precursor to establishing "behavioural peace". Peaceful behaviour sometimes results from a "peaceful inner disposition". It has been argued by some that inner qualities such astranquility,patience,respect,compassion,kindness,self-control,courage,moderation,forgiveness,equanimity, and the ability to see the big picture can promote peace within an individual, regardless of the external circumstances of their life.[4]
Before the word 'peace' came into English lexicon, Anglo-Saxons used a phrase "friðu sibb" for "pledge of peace".
The term 'peace' originates from the Anglo-Frenchpes, and the Old Frenchpais, meaning "peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement" (11th century).[5] The Anglo-French termpes itself comes from theLatinpax, meaning "peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony."
The English word came into use in various personal greetings fromc. 1300 as a translation of the Hebrew wordshalom, which, according to Jewish theology, comes from a Hebrew verb meaning 'to be complete, whole'.[6] Although "peace" is the usual translation, it is an incomplete one, becauseshalom, which is also cognate with the Arabicsalaam, has multiple other meanings in addition to peace, including justice, good health, safety, well-being, prosperity, equity, security, good fortune, and friendliness, as well as simply the greetings, "hello" and "goodbye".[7]
In many languages, the word 'peace' is also used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian wordaloha, as well as the Arabic wordsalaam. In English the word peace is occasionally used as a farewell, especially for the dead, as in the phrases "rest in peace" or "peace out".
Peace was forged throughdiplomacy in the form of royal marriages, both in the distant past and in modern times. Two early examples of royal marriages being used to establish diplomatic relations areHermodike I, who married the king ofPhrygia around 800 BCE,[8] andHermodike II, who married the king ofLydia around 600 BCE.[9] Both marriages involved Greek princesses from the house ofAgamemnon and kings from what is now Turkey.[10] The marriages between the Greek princesses and the kings ofPhrygia andLydia had a significant impact on the region, leading to the transfer of important technological innovations fromAnatolia toGreece. In particular, the Phrygians introduced the Greek alphabet, while the Lydians pioneered the use of coinage as a form of currency. Both inventions were rapidly adopted by surrounding nations through further trade and cooperation.
Peace has not always been achieved through peaceful means; in many cases, it has been enforced by the victors of war, often through the use of violence and coercion. In his workAgricola, the Roman historian Tacitus, writes passionately and critically about the greed and arrogance of the Roman Empire, portraying it as a ruthless and self-serving power. One, that Tacitus says is by theCaledonian chieftainCalgacus, ends with: "Auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant." ("To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a desert, they call it peace." —Oxford Revised Translation).
Discussion of peace is therefore at the same time an inquiry into its form.[11] Societal peace can be seen at least in two forms:
A simple silence of arms, absence of war.
Absence of war accompanied by particular requirements for the mutual settlement of relations, which are characterized by justice, mutual respect, respect for law, and good will.
Since 1945, theUnited Nations and theUnited Nations Security Council have operated under the aim to resolve conflicts without war. Nonetheless, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since then.
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue.
After authorization by theSecurity Council, the UN sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords are awardedUnited Nations Medals, which are consideredinternational decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received theNobel Peace Prize in 1988.
The obligation of the state to provide for domestic peace within its borders is usually charged to the police and other general domestic policing activities. The police are a constituted body ofpersons empowered by astate toenforce the law, to protect the lives, liberty and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder.[12] Their powers include the power of arrest and the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of asovereign state that are authorized to exercise thepolice power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however,gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.[13] Police forces are usually public sector services, funded through taxes.
The national security apparatus of a nation is responsible for providing peace and security against foreign threats and aggression. National security can be threatened by a range of factors, including actions by other states (such as military or cyber attacks), violent non-state actors (such as terrorist attacks), organized criminal groups (such as narcotic cartels), and natural disasters (such as floods and earthquakes).[14]: v, 1–8 [15] Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational, includeeconomic inequality and marginalisation,political exclusion,climate change, andnuclear proliferation.[15] In view of the wide range of risks, the preservation of peace and the security of a nation state have several dimensions, including economic security, energy security, physical security, environmental security, food security, border security, and cyber security. These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power.
The principal forerunner of the United Nations was theLeague of Nations. It was created at theParis Peace Conference of 1919, and emerged from the advocacy ofWoodrow Wilson and other idealists during World War I. The Covenant of the League of Nations was included in theTreaty of Versailles in 1919, and the League was based inGeneva until its dissolution as a result of World War II and replacement by the United Nations. The high hopes widely held for the League in the 1920s, for example amongst members of theLeague of Nations Union, gave way to widespread disillusion in the 1930s as the League struggled to respond to challenges from Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan.
The prominent scholar,Sir Alfred Eckhard Zimmern, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential intellectuals of the League of Nations, drew inspiration for his studies from the classics, along with other British scholars such as Gilbert Murray and Florence Stawell. This group of scholars is often referred to as the "Greece and peace" set, due to their shared interest in ancient Greek civilization and the promotion of peace.
The creation of the League of Nations, and the hope for informed public opinion on international issues (expressed for example by theUnion for Democratic Control during World War I), also saw the creation after World War I of bodies dedicated to understanding international affairs, such as theCouncil on Foreign Relations in New York and theRoyal Institute of International Affairs atChatham House in London. At the same time, the academic study of international relations started to professionalise, with the creation of the first professorship of international politics, named for Woodrow Wilson, atAberystwyth, Wales, in 1919.
Since 1901, the Nobel Peace Prize has been the world's most prestigious honor given to individuals or organizations who have made significant contributions to peace. The prize is awarded by theNorwegian Nobel Committee, a group of five individuals chosen by the Norwegian parliament. Nominees for the prize come from around the world, and are often those who have worked to end conflict, protect human rights, or promote humanitarian efforts. It is awarded annually to internationally notable persons following the prize's creation in the will ofAlfred Nobel. According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who "...shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies, and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."[16]
In creating theRhodes Scholarships for outstanding students from the United States, Germany and much of the British Empire,Cecil Rhodes wrote in 1901 that 'the object is that an understanding between the three great powers will render war impossible and educational relations make the strongest tie'.[17] This peace purpose of the Rhodes Scholarships was very prominent in the first half of the 20th century, and became prominent again in recent years under Warden of the Rhodes HouseDonald Markwell,[18] a historian of thought about the causes of war and peace.[19] This vision greatly influenced SenatorJ. William Fulbright in the goal of the Fulbright fellowships to promote international understanding and peace, and has guided many other international fellowship programs,[20][21] including theSchwarzman Scholars to China created byStephen A. Schwarzman in 2013.[22]
The International Gandhi Peace Prize, named afterMahatma Gandhi, is awarded annually by theGovernment of India. It was launched as a tribute to the ideals espoused by Gandhi in 1995 on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of his birth. This is an annual award given to individuals and institutions for their contributions towards social, economic and political transformation through non-violence and other Gandhian methods. The award carries Rs. 10 million in cash, convertible in any currency in the world, a plaque and a citation. It is open to all persons regardless of nationality, race, creed or sex.
TheStudent Peace Prize is awarded biennially to a student or a student organization that has made a significant contribution to promoting peace and human rights.
TheAhmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize, is awarded annually "in recognition of an individual's or an organisation's contribution for the advancement of the cause of peace". The prize was first launched in 2009 by theAhmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize Committee under the directive of thecaliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community,Mirza Masroor Ahmad.
TheCulture of Peace News Network, otherwise known simply asCPNN, is aUN authorized interactive online news network, committed to supporting the global movement for a culture of peace.
Rainbows are often used as a symbol of harmony and peace.
Every year in the first week of November, the Sydney Peace Foundation presents theSydney Peace Prize. The Sydney Peace Prize is awarded to an organization or an individual whose life and work has demonstrated significant contributions to: The achievement of peace with justice locally, nationally or internationally The promotion and attainment of human rights The philosophy, language and practice of non-violence
A peace museum is a museum that documents historical peace initiatives. Many provide advocacy programs for nonviolent conflict resolution. This may include conflicts at the personal, regional or international level.
Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the basic problems of human life, including conflicts between, among, and within persons and societies. In ancientGreek-speaking areas, the virtue of peace was personified as the goddessEirene, and inLatin-speaking areas as the goddessPax. Her image was typically represented by ancient sculptors as a full-grown woman, usually with ahorn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch orolive leaves.
Christians, who believeJesus of Nazareth to be theJewish Messiah calledChrist (meaning Anointed One),[23] interpretIsaiah 9:6 as amessianic prophecy of Jesus in which he is called the "Prince of Peace".[24] In theGospel of Luke,Zechariah celebrates his sonJohn: "And you, child, will be called the prophet of the Most High; for you will go before the Lord to prepare his ways, to give knowledge of salvation to his people by the forgiveness of their sins. By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us, to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace."[25]
In theCatholic Church, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the HolyRosary as a means to foster peace. In the EncyclicalMense maio, 1965, in which he urged the practice of the Holy Rosary, and as reaffirmed in the encyclicalChristi Matri, 1966, to implore peace,Pope Paul VI stated in the apostolicRecurrens mensis, October 1969, that the Rosary is a prayer that favors the great gift of peace.
May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, peace on the earth. Let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, and perfection in eternal knowledge. May everything in the universe be at peace. Let peace pervade everywhere, at all times. May I experience that peace within my own heart.
Let us have concord with our own people, and concord with people who are strangers to us. Ashwins (Celestial Twins) create between us and the strangers a unity of hearts. May we unite in our minds, unite in our purposes, and not fight against the heavenly spirit within us. Let not the battle-cry rise amidst many slain, nor the arrows of the war-god fall with the break of day
— Yajur Veda 7.52
A superior being does not render evil for evil. This is a maxim one should observe... One should never harm the wicked or the good or even animals meriting death. A noble soul will exercise compassion even towards those who enjoy injuring others or cruel deeds... Who is without fault?
The chariot that leads to victory is of another kind.
Valour and fortitude are its wheels;Truthfulness and virtuous conduct are its banner;Strength, discretion, self-restraint and benevolence are its four horses,Harnessed with the cords of forgiveness, compassion and equanimity...
Whoever has this righteous chariot, has no enemy to conquer anywhere.
Buddhists believe that peace is attained by ending pain and suffering. They regard pain and suffering is stemming from cravings (in the extreme, greed), aversions (fears), and delusions and suffering is attachments to outcomes. To eliminate such pain and suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of theBuddha adhere to a set of teachings called theFour Noble Truths — a central tenet inBuddhist philosophy.
Islam derived from the root wordsalam which literally means peace.Quran states "those who believe and whose hearts find comfort in the remembrance of Allah. Surely in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find comfort."[27] and stated "O believers! When you are told to make room in gatherings, then do so. Allah will make room for you ˹in His grace˺. And if you are told to rise, then do so. Allah will elevate those of you who are faithful, and ˹raise˺ those gifted with knowledge in rank. And Allah is All-Aware of what you do."[28]
The Judaic tradition associates God with peace, as evidenced by various principles and laws in Judaism.
Shalom, the biblical and modern Hebrew word for peace, is one of the names for God according to the Judaic law and tradition. For instance, in traditionalJewish law, individuals are prohibited from saying "Shalom" when they are in the bathroom as there is a prohibition on uttering any of God's names in the bathroom, out of respect for the divine name.
Jewish liturgy and prayer is replete with prayers asking God to establish peace in the world. Theשמונה עשרה, a key prayer in Judaism that is recited three times each day, concludes with a blessing for peace. The last blessing of theשמונה עשרה, also known as the Amida ("standing" as the prayer is said while standing), is focused on peace, beginning and ending with supplications for peace and blessings.
Peace is central to Judaism's core principle ofמָשִׁיחַ ("messiah") which connotes a time of universal peace and abundance, a time when weapons will be turned into plowshares and lions will sleep with lambs. As it is written in theBook of Isaiah:
They shall beat theirswords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare.
The wolf will live with the lamb, the leopard will lie down with the goat, the calf and the lion and the yearling together; and a little child will lead them. The cow will feed with the bear, their young will lie down together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox. The infant will play near the hole of the cobra, and the young child put his hand into the viper's nest. They will neither harm nor destroy on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea.
This last metaphor fromTanakh (Hebrew bible) symbolizes the peace by which a longed-for messianic age will be characterized, a peace in which natural enemies, the strong and the weak, predator and prey, will live in harmony.
Jews pray for themessianic age of peace every day in the מָשִׁיחַ, in addition to faith in the coming of the messianic age constituting one of the thirteen core principles of faith in Judaism, according toMaimonides.[citation needed]
A peace sign, which is widely associated with pacifism
Pacifism is the categorical opposition to the behaviors of war or violence as a means of settling disputes or of gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should all be resolved via peaceful behaviors; to calls for the abolition of various organizations which tend to institutionalize aggressive behaviors, such as the military, or arms manufacturers; to opposition to any organization of society that might rely in any way upon governmental force. Groups that sometimes oppose the governmental use of force includeanarchists andlibertarians. Absolute pacifism opposes violent behavior under all circumstance, including defense of self and others.
Pacifism may be based on moral principles (adeontological view) or pragmatism (aconsequentialist view). Principled pacifism holds that all forms of violent behavior are inappropriate responses to conflict, and are morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and inter-personal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.
Psychological or inner peace (i.e. peace of mind) refers to a state of being internally or spiritually at peace, with sufficient clarity of knowledge and understanding to remain calm in the face of apparent discord, stress and discomfort. Being internally "at peace" is considered to be a healthy playable mental state, ahomeostasis of emotions and to be the opposite of feeling stressful, mentally anxious, or emotionally unstable. Within meditative traditions, the achievement of "peace of mind" is often associated with bliss and happiness.
Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some meditative traditions, inner peace is believed to be a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various types of meditation, prayer,tai chi, yoga, or other various types of mental or physical disciplines. Many such practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself. An emphasis on finding inner peace is often associated with traditions such asBuddhism,Hinduism, and some traditional Christian contemplative practices such asmonasticism,[29] as well as with theNew Age movement.
Thenon-aggression principle asserts that aggression against an individual or an individual's property is always an immoral violation of life, liberty, and property rights.[30] Utilizing deceit instead of consent to achieve ends is also a violation of the Non-Aggression Principle. Therefore, under the framework of this principle, rape, murder, deception, involuntary taxation, government regulation, and other behaviors that initiate aggression against otherwise peaceful individuals are considered violations.[31] A common elevator pitch for this principle is, "Good ideas don't require force."[32]
The wordsatyagraha itself was coined through a public contest that Gandhi sponsored through the newspaper he published in South Africa,Indian Opinion, when he realized that neither the common, contemporary Hindu language nor the English language contained a word which fully expressed his own meanings and intentions when he talked about his nonviolent approaches to conflict. According to Gandhi's autobiography, the contest winner was Maganlal Gandhi (presumably no relation), who submitted the entry 'sadagraha', which Gandhi then modified to 'satyagraha'. Etymologically, this Hindic word means 'truth-firmness', and is commonly translated as 'steadfastness in the truth' or 'truth-force'.
Satyagraha theory also influencedMartin Luther King Jr.,James Bevel, and others during the campaigns they led during thecivil rights movement in the United States. The theory of satyagraha sees means and ends as inseparable. Therefore, it is contradictory to try to use violence to obtain peace. As Gandhi wrote: "They say, 'means are, after all, means'. I would say, 'means are, after all, everything'. As the means so the end..."[33] A quote sometimes attributed to Gandhi, but also toA. J. Muste, sums it up: "There is no way to peace; peace is the way".[citation needed]
The monument of peace was preferred over the traditional triumphal arch asAugustus emphasized the achievement ofuniversal peace over Roman military victory.
A gift from the people of Japan to the people of the United States, presented to honorChester W. Nimitz and created as a respite from the intensity of violence, destruction, and loss.
Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world ofpeace studies, which involves the study of de-escalation, conflict transformation, disarmament, and cessation of violence.[36][better source needed] The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.
As the maintenance of a balance of power could in some circumstances require a willingness to go to war, some critics saw the idea of a balance of power as promoting war rather than promoting peace. This was a radical critique of those supporters of the Allied and Associated Powers who justified entry into World War I on the grounds that it was necessary to preserve the balance of power in Europe from a German bid forhegemony.
In the second half of the 20th century, and especially during theCold War, a particular form of balance of power – mutual nuclear deterrence – emerged as a widely held doctrine on the key to peace between the great powers. Critics argued that the development of nuclear stockpiles increased the chances of war rather than peace, and that the "nuclear umbrella" made it "safe" for smaller wars (e.g. theVietnam War and the Soviet invasion ofCzechoslovakia to end thePrague Spring), so making such wars more likely. Similarly, other critics such asRobert L. Holmes utilize areductio ad absurdum argument to note that any reliance upon a strategy of mutual nuclear deterrence as a means to prevent nuclear war itself is irrational at best in so far as it requires the utilization of the very instruments of war which it seeks to avoid implementing, while also failing to demonstrate an inherent effectiveness in preventing war in either the past, present or future frames of reference.[37][38][39]
Appeasement is a strategy to achieve peace by making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressivepower.[40]Deterrence is a strategy to achieve peace by using threats or limited force todissuade an actor from escalating conflict,[41] typically because the prospective attacker believes that the probability of success is low and the costs of attack are high.[42]
It was a central tenet ofclassical liberalism, for example among English liberal thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th century, that free trade promoted peace. For example, the Cambridge economistJohn Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) said that he was "brought up" on this idea and held it unquestioned until at least the 1920s.[49] During theeconomic globalization in the decades leading up to World War I, writers such asNorman Angell argued that the growth of economic interdependence between the great powers made war between them futile and therefore unlikely. He made this argument in 1913. A year later Europe's economically interconnected states were embroiled in what would later become known as the First World War.[50]
Thedemocratic peace theory posits that democracy causes peace (between democracies) because of the accountability, institutions, values, and norms of democratic countries.[51]
Theterritorial peace theory posits that peace causes democracy because territorial wars between neighbor countries lead to authoritarian attitudes and disregard for democratic values.[52] This theory is supported by historical studies showing that countries rarely become democratic until after their borders have been settled by territorial peace with neighbor countries.[53]
As peace makers became richer over time, it became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated. One of the well studiedstrategies that acquired wealth more rapidly was based onGenghis Khan, i.e. a constant aggressor making war continually to gain resources. This led, in contrast, to the development of what's known as the "provokable nice guystrategy", a peace-maker until attacked, improved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked. By adding the results of all pairwise games for each player, one sees that multiple players gain wealth cooperating with each other while bleeding a constantly aggressive player.[55]
Socialist, communist, and left-wing liberal writers of the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g.,Lenin,J.A. Hobson,John Strachey) argued that capitalism caused war (e.g. through promoting imperial or other economic rivalries that lead to international conflict). This led some to argue that international socialism was the key to peace.
However, in response to such writers in the 1930s who argued that capitalism caused war, the economistJohn Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) argued that managed capitalism could promote peace. This involved international coordination of fiscal/monetary policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against each other, and a high degree of freedom of trade. These ideas underlay Keynes's work during World War II that led to the creation of theInternational Monetary Fund and theWorld Bank atBretton Woods in 1944, and later of theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (subsequently theWorld Trade Organization).[56][page needed]
One of the most influential theories of peace, especially sinceWoodrow Wilson led the creation of theLeague of Nations at theParis Peace Conference of 1919, is that peace will be advanced if the intentional anarchy of states is replaced through the growth ofinternational law promoted and enforced through international organizations such as the League of Nations, theUnited Nations, and other functional international organizations. One of the most important early exponents of this view wasAlfred Eckhart Zimmern, for example in his 1936 bookThe League of Nations and the Rule of Law.[57]
Many "idealist" thinkers about international relations – e.g. in the traditions ofKant andKarl Marx – have argued that the key to peace is the growth of some form ofsolidarity between peoples (or classes of people) spanning the lines of cleavage between nations or states that lead to war.[58][page needed]
One version of this is the idea of promoting international understanding between nations through the international mobility of students – an idea most powerfully advanced byCecil Rhodes in the creation of theRhodes Scholarships, and his successors such asJ. William Fulbright.[59]
Another theory is that peace can be developed among countries on the basis of active management of water resources.[60][better source needed]
Although peace is widely perceived as something intangible, various organizations have been making efforts to quantify and measure it.The Global Peace Index produced bythe Institute for Economics and Peace is a known effort to evaluate peacefulness in countries based on 23 indicators of the absence of violence and absence of the fear of violence.[63]
The 2015 edition of the Index ranked 163 countries on their internal and external levels of peace.[64] According to the 2017Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world while Syria is the least peaceful one.[65]Fragile States Index (formerly known as the Failed States Index) created by theFund for Peace focuses on risk for instability or violence in 178 nations. This index measures how fragile a state is by 12 indicators and subindicators that evaluate aspects of politics, social economy, and military facets in countries.[66] The 2015 Failed State Index reports that the most fragile nation is South Sudan, and the least fragile one is Finland.[67]University of Maryland publishes the Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger in order to measure peace. It grades 163 countries with 5 indicators, and pays the most attention to risk of political instability or armed conflict over a three-year period. The most recent ledger shows that the most peaceful country is Slovenia on the contrary Afghanistan is the most conflicted nation. Besides indicated above reports from theInstitute for Economics and Peace, Fund for Peace, and University of Maryland, other organizations including George Mason University release indexes that rank countries in terms of peacefulness.
The longest continuing period of peace and neutrality among currently existing states is observed inSweden since 1814 and inSwitzerland, which has had an official policy of neutrality since 1815. This was made possible partly by the periods of relative peace in Europe and the world known asPax Britannica (1815–1914),Pax Europaea/Pax Americana (since 1950s), andPax Atomica (also since the 1950s).
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^"peace".Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived fromthe original on 14 December 2013.
^"Peace Sign".Inner Peace Zone. 28 August 2021.Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved17 December 2021.
^Boederman, John, ed. (1997).The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 832.[volume & issue needed]
^Nilsson, Martin P. (1983).Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology. Univ. of California Press. p. 48.
^Dowler, Amelia."Gold coin of Croesus".A History of the World.Archived from the original on 22 January 2010. Retrieved12 March 2019.
^Šmihula, Daniel (2013).The Use of Force in International Relations. VEDA, Publishing House of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. p. 129.ISBN978-80-224-1341-1.
^Lioe, Kim Eduard (3 December 2010).Armed Forces in Law Enforcement Operations? – The German and European Perspective (1989 ed.). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 52–57.ISBN978-3-642-15433-1.
^"For a child has been born for us, a son given to us; authority rests upon his shoulders; and he is named Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father,Prince of Peace." [New Revised Standard Version]
Vance, Laurence M. (1 October 2015)."The Morality of Libertarianism".The Future of Freedom Foundation.Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Prabhu, R.K.; Rao, U.R., eds. (1967),"The Gospel Of Sarvodaya",The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi (Revised ed.), Ahemadabad, India, archived fromthe original on 27 September 2011{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Havel, Václav; et al. (1985). Keane, John, ed. The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the state in central-eastern Europe. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.ISBN0-87332-761-6.
^Nan Richardson (ed),Kerry Kennedy andEddie Adams, 'Speak Truth to Power', Umbrage, 2003, introduction.
^According to Fea (2017), 'Rustin and his co-authors expunged Rustin’s name from the pamphlet because of his arrest on charges of committing a homosexual act in 1953.'The History of the Phrase “Speak Truth to Power”
^Quoted fromDonald Markwell,John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, chapter 2.
Jeni Whalan.How Peace Operations Work. Oxford University Press, 2013
Martin Wight.Power Politics. 1946 (2nd edition, 1978)
"Pennsylvania, A History of the Commonwealth," esp. pg. 109, edited by Randall M. Miller and William Pencak, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002
Prefaces to Peace: a Symposium [i.e. anthology], Consisting of [works by] Wendell L. Willkie, Herbert Hoover and Hugh Gibson, Henry A. Wallace, [and] Sumner Welles. "Cooperatively published by Simon and Schuster; Doubleday, Doran, and Co.; Reynal & Hitchcock; [and] Columbia University Press", [194-]. xii, 437 p.
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