The northern limit of the region is not precisely defined; theColorado andBarrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia;[4] on this basis the extent of Patagonia could be defined as the provinces ofNeuquén,Río Negro,Chubut andSanta Cruz, together withPatagones Partido in the far south of Buenos Aires Province. Thearchipelago ofTierra del Fuego is sometimes considered part of Patagonia. Most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia atHuincul Fault, inAraucanía Region.[5][6][7][8]
WhenSpanish explorers first arrived, Patagonia was inhabited by several indigenous groups. In a small portion of northwestern Patagonia, some communities practiced limited agriculture, while in the remaining territory most peoples lived as hunter-gatherers—travelling on foot in the eastern plains and usingdugout canoes anddalcas in the westernfjords and channels.[9][10] During the colonial period, the indigenous groups of northeastern Patagonia adopted a horseback-based nomadic lifestyle following the introduction of the horse.[11][12]
Although Spain claimed Patagonia and conducted early explorations and a few small coastal settlements, theSpanish Crown was primarily concerned with preventing other European powers from establishing a presence in the region.[13] After gaining independence, both Chile and Argentina asserted sovereignty over the southern territories and began to consolidate and colonize their claims throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. This expansion led to a severe decline in indigenous populations, whose societies were disrupted by incoming settlers from Argentina, theChiloé Archipelago, mainland Chile, and Europe.[14] Indigenous resistance to colonization was ultimately suppressed through a series of military campaigns carried out by Argentina and Chile.[15]
The contemporary economy of Argentine Patagonia is largely based on sheep farming and the extraction of oil and natural gas, while in Chilean Patagonia the economy is dominated byfishing,salmon aquaculture, andtourism.[16][17][18][19]
The name Patagonia comes from the wordpatagón.[20]Magellan used this term in 1520 to describe the native tribes of the region, whom his expedition thought to be giants. The people he called the Patagons are now believed to have been theTehuelche, who tended to be taller than Europeans of the time.[21][22] Argentine researcherMiguel Doura observed that the name Patagonia possibly derives from the ancient Greek region of modern Turkey calledPaphlagonia, possible home of thepatagon personage in the chivalric romancesPrimaleon printed in 1512, ten years before Magellan arrived in these southern lands. This hypothesis was published in a 2011New Review of Spanish Philology report.[23]
InChubut Province modern toponymy comes from the word "chupat" belonging to a transitional language between the southern and northern Tehuelche ethnic groups that were located in that region called Tewsün or Teushen. The word means transparency and is related to the clarity and purity of the river that bears that name and runs through the province. It is also related to the origin of the Welsh pronunciation of the word "chupat" which later became "Chubut". It is called "Camwy" inPatagonian Welsh. Chupat, Chubut and Camwy have the same meaning and are used to talk about the river and the province.Welsh settlers and placenames are associated with one of the projects of the country of Wales, Project Hiraeth.[27]
Patagonia
Regional identity in Patagonia varies, and some residents emphasize a distinct Patagonian identity linked to the region’s geography, history, and cultural development.[28] Communities of Welsh descent inY Wladfa (the Welsh settlement in Chubut Province) also maintain a strong regional and cultural identity within Patagonia.[29]
The term "Patagonian" may be used by residents of Argentine and Chilean Patagonia, as well as by people associated with nearby southern territories—such as the Chilean settlement of Villa Las Estrellas in Antarctica and the Argentine civilian settlement at Esperanza Base—who identify culturally or geographically with southern Patagonia.[30][31]
A Patagonian is generally understood as a person belonging to the Patagonia region and its cultural sphere, including residents of both Chilean and Argentine Patagonia and the Indigenous peoples whose communities predate the1881 Boundary Treaty between Chile and Argentina.[32]
Patagonia is divided between Western Patagonia (Chile) and Eastern Patagonia (Argentina) and several territories are still under dispute and claiming their rights.Mapuche people came from the Chilean Andes and voted to remain in different sides of Patagonia. Welsh settlers came from Wales and North America and voted to remain in Patagonia; when the treaty was signed, they voted for culture and administration to be apart from the country keeping the settlement, language, schools, traditions, regional dates, flag, anthems, and celebrations. Patagonians also live abroad in settlements likeSaltcoats, Saskatchewan, Canada;New South Wales, Australia; South Africa; the Falkland Islands; and North America.[33]
Eastern Patagonia consists of five Argentineprovinces, together with a singlepartido (the most southern division) ofBuenos Aires Province, all listed below with their areas and their populations at the censuses of 15 May 1991, 17 November 2000, 27 October 2010 and 16 May 2022:[34]
Western Patagonia at its greatest definition consists of four Chilean provinces, all listed below with their areas and their populations at the Censuses 0f 22 April 1992, 24 April 2002, 19 April 2017 and 9 March 2024:[35] One a more limited definition, Chilean Patagonia comprises just the two more southern and least populated regions (Zona Austral) of Aysén and Magallanes.
The populations of Argentine cities and agglomerations are from the 2022 Census as referenced above. The populations of Chilean cities and agglomerations are from the 2017 Census as referenced above.
Argentine Patagonia is for the most part a region ofsteppe-like plains, rising in a succession of 13 abruptterraces about 100 m (330 ft) at a time, and covered with an enormous bed ofshingle almost bare of vegetation.[37][38] In the hollows of the plains areponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water. Towards Chilean territory, the shingle gives way toporphyry,granite, andbasalt lavas, and animal life becomes more abundant.[37] Vegetation is more luxuriant, consisting principally ofsouthern beech andconifers. The high rainfall against the western Andes (Wet Andes) and the low sea-surface temperatures offshore give rise to cold and humid air masses, contributing to the ice fields andglaciers, the largest ice fields in theSouthern Hemisphere outside of Antarctica.[38]
Among the depressions by which theplateau is intersected transversely, the principal ones are theGualichu, south of theRío Negro, theMaquinchao andValcheta (through which previously flowed the waters ofNahuel Huapi Lake, which now feed the Limay River), theSenguerr (spelled Senguer on most Argentine maps and within the corresponding region), and theDeseado River. Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient interoceanic communication), others were occupied by either more or less extensive lakes, such as theYagagtoo,Musters, andColhue Huapi, and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado in the center of the country.[37]
Erosion, which is caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of ice aided bytectonic changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression, best in evidence where in contact with foldedCretaceous rocks, which are lifted up by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, whose ridges are generally called the pre-Cordillera. To the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest, most fertile land of Patagonia.[37] Lake basins along the Cordillera were also gradually excavated by ice streams, includingLake Argentino andLake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such asBahía Inútil.[38]
The establishment of dams near the Andes in Argentina in the 20th century has led to asediment shortage along the Atlantic coast of Patagonia.[40]
The geological limit of Patagonia has been proposed to beHuincul Fault, which forms a major discontinuity. The fault truncates variousstructures including thePampean orogen found further north. The ages of base rocks change abruptly across the fault.[41] Discrepancies have been mentioned amonggeologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass.Víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as anallochthonousterrane that separated fromAntarctica and docked inSouth America 250 to 270Mya in thePermian period.[42] A 2014 study byR.J. Pankhurst and coworkers rejects any idea of a far-traveled Patagonia, claiming it is likely ofparautochtonous (nearby) origin.[43]
TheMesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interestingvertebrate fauna. This, together with the discovery of the perfectcranium of aturtle (chelonian) of the genusNiolamia, which is almost identical toNinjemys oweni of thePleistocene age inQueensland, forms an evident proof of the connection between the Australian and South American continents. The PatagonianNiolamia belongs to the Sarmienti Formation.[44] Fossils of the mid-CretaceousArgentinosaurus, which may be the largest of all dinosaurs, have been found in Patagonia, and a model of the mid-JurassicPiatnitzkysaurus graces the concourse of theTrelew airport (the skeleton is in the Trelew paleontological museum; the museum's staff has also announced the discovery of a species of dinosaur even bigger thanArgentinosaurus[45]). Of more than paleontological interest,[46] the middle JurassicLos Molles Formation and the still richer late Jurassic (Tithonian) and early Cretaceous (Berriasian)Vaca Muerta formation above it in the Neuquén basin are reported to contain huge hydrocarbon reserves (mostly gas in Los Molles, both gas and oil in Vaca Muerta) partly accessible throughhydraulic fracturing.[47] Other specimens of the interesting fauna of Patagonia, belonging to the Middle Cenozoic, are the gigantic wingless birds, exceeding in size any hitherto known, and the singular mammalPyrotherium, also of very large dimensions. In the Cenozoic marine formation, considerable numbers ofcetaceans have been discovered.
During theOligocene and earlyMiocene, large swathes of Patagonia were subject to amarine transgression, which might have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from the findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity inLa Cascada Formation.[48][49] Connection would have occurred through narrowepicontinental seaways that formed channels in adissected topography.[48][50] TheAntarctic Plate started tosubduct beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming theChile Triple Junction. At first, the Antarctic Plate subducted only in the southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction was located near theStrait of Magellan. As the southern part of theNazca Plate and theChile Rise became consumed by subduction, the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate began to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time.[51] Theasthenospheric window associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns ofmantle convection beneath Patagoniainducing an uplift of c. 1 km that reversed the Miocene transgression.[50][52]
At a state level, Patagonia visually occupies an area within two countries: approximately 10% in Chile and approximately 90% in Argentina.[53] Both countries have organized their Patagonian territories into nonequivalent administrative subdivisions:provinces anddepartments in Argentina, as well asregions,provinces, andcommunes in Chile. As Chile is aunitary state, its first-level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than analogous Argentine provinces. Argentine provinces have elected governors and legislatures, while Chilean regions had government-appointed intendants prior to the adoption of elected governors from 2021.
The two Chilean regions undisputedly located entirely within Patagonia areAysén andMagallanes.Palena Province, a part of theLos Lagos Region, is also located within Patagonia. By some definitions, Chiloé Archipelago, the rest of the Los Lagos Region, and part of the Los Ríos Region are also part of Patagonia.
Patagonia's climate is mostly cool and dry year round. The east coast is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas the west coast is washed by a cold current. However, winters are colder on the inland plateaus east of the slopes and further down the coast on the southeast end of the Patagonian region. For example, atPuerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloé Island, the mean annual temperature is 11 °C (52 °F) and the average extremes are 25.5 and −1.5 °C (77.9 and 29.3 °F), whereas atBahía Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagonia, the annual temperature is 15 °C (59 °F) and the range much greater, as temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) and below −5 °C (23 °F) are recorded every year. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is 6 °C (43 °F) and the average extremes are 24.5 and −2 °C (76.1 and 28.4 °F). The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern in arainshadow effect;[54][38] the western islands close toTorres del Paine receive an annual precipitation of 4,000 to 7,000 mm (157.5 to 275.6 in), while the eastern hills have less than 800 mm (31.5 in) and the plains have as little as 200 mm (7.9 in) of annual precipitation.[38]
Precipitation is highly seasonal in northwestern Patagonia. For example,Villa La Angostura in Argentina, close to the border with Chile, receives up to 434 mm (17.1 in) of rain and snow in May, 297 mm (11.7 in) in June, and 273 mm (10.7 in) in July, compared to 80 mm (3.1 in) in February and 72 mm (2.8 in) in March. The total for the city is 2,074 mm (81.7 in), making it one of the rainiest in Argentina. Farther west, some areas receive 4,000 mm (157.5 in) and more, especially on the Chilean side. In the northeast, the seasons for rain are reversed; most rain falls from occasional summer thunderstorms but totals barely reach 500 mm (19.7 in) in the northeast corner, and decrease rapidly to less than 300 mm (11.8 in). The Patagonian west coast, which belongs exclusively to Chile, has a cool oceanic climate, with summer maximum temperatures ranging from 14 °C (57 °F) in the south to 19 °C (66 °F) in the north and nights between 5 and 11 °C (41 and 52 °F), and very high precipitation, from 2,000 mm (78.7 in) to more than 7,000 mm (275.6 in) in localmicroclimates. Snow is uncommon at the coast in the north but happens more often in the south, and frost is usually not very intense.[citation needed]
Immediately east of the coast are the Andes, cut by deepfjords in the south and by deep lakes in the north, and with varying temperatures according to the altitude. The tree line ranges from close to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) on the northern side (except for the Andes in northern Neuquén in Argentina, where sunnier and dryer conditions allow trees to grow up to close to 3,000 metres (9,800 ft)), and diminishes southward to only 600 to 800 metres (2,000 to 2,600 ft) in Tierra del Fuego. Precipitation changes dramatically from one spot to the other and diminishes very quickly eastward. An example of this is Laguna Frías, in Argentina, which receives 4,400 mm (173.2 in) yearly. The city of Bariloche, about 40 kilometres (25 mi) further east, receives about 1,000 mm (39.4 in), and the airport, another 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) east, receives less than 600 mm (23.6 in). The easterly slopes of the Andes are home to several Argentine cities:San Martín de los Andes, Bariloche,El Bolsón,Esquel, andEl Calafate. Temperatures there are milder in the summer (in the north, between 20 and 24 °C (68 and 75 °F), with cold nights between 4 and 9 °C (39 and 48 °F); in the south, summers are between 16 and 20 °C (61 and 68 °F), at night temperatures are similar to the north) and much colder in the winter, with frequent snowfall (although snow cover rarely lasts very long). Daytime highs range from 3 to 9 °C (37 to 48 °F) in the north, and from 0 to 7 °C (32 to 45 °F) in the south, whereas nights range from −5 to 2 °C (23 to 36 °F) everywhere. Cold waves can bring much colder values; a temperature of −25 °C (−13 °F) has been recorded in Bariloche, and most places can often have temperatures between −15 and −12 °C (5 and 10 °F) and highs staying around 0 °C (32 °F) for a few days.[citation needed]
Santa Cruz Province
Directly east of these areas, the weather becomes much harsher; precipitation drops to between 150 and 300 millimetres (6 and 10 in), the mountains no longer protect the cities from the wind, and temperatures become more extreme. Maquinchao is a few hundred kilometers east of Bariloche, at the same altitude on a plateau, and summer daytime temperatures are usually about 5°C (9°F) warmer, rising up to 35 °C (95 °F) sometimes, but winter temperatures are much more extreme: the record is −35 °C (−31 °F), and some nights not uncommonly are 10°C (18°F) colder than in Bariloche. The plateaus in Santa Cruz province and parts of Chubut usually have snow cover through the winter, and often experience very cold temperatures. In Chile, the city of Balmaceda is known for being situated in this region (which is otherwise almost exclusively in Argentina), and for being the coldest place in Chile. In 2017, temperatures even dropped down to −20 °C (−4 °F) in the region.[55]
The northern Atlantic coast has warm summers (28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F), but with relatively cool nights at 15 °C (59 °F)) and mild winters, with highs around 12 °C (54 °F) and lows of about 2 to 3 °C (36 to 37 °F). Occasionally, temperatures have reached as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and as high as 40 °C (104 °F), and rainfall is very scarce. The weather only gets a bit colder further south in Chubut, and the city of Comodoro Rivadavia has summer temperatures of 24 to 28 °C (75 to 82 °F), nights of 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F), and winters with days around 10 °C (50 °F) and nights around 3 °C (37 °F), and less than 250 millimetres (10 in) of rain. However, a drastic drop occurs as one moves south to Santa Cruz; Rio Gallegos, in the south of the province, has summer temperatures of 17 to 21 °C (63 to 70 °F) with nights between 6 and 10 °C (43 and 50 °F) and winter temperatures of 2 to 6 °C (36 to 43 °F) with nights between −5 and 0 °C (23 and 32 °F), despite being right on the coast. Snowfall is common despite the dryness, and temperatures are known to fall to under −18 °C (0 °F) and to remain below 0 °C (32 °F) for several days in a row. Rio Gallegos is also among the windiest places on Earth, with winds reaching 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) occasionally.[citation needed]
Tierra del Fuego is extremely wet in the west, relatively damp in the south, and dry in the north and east. Summers are cool (13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F) in the north, 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F) in the south, with nights generally between 3 and 8 °C (37 and 46 °F)), cloudy in the south, and very windy. Winters are dark and cold, but without the extreme temperatures in the south and west (Ushuaia rarely reaches −10 °C (14 °F), but hovers around 0 °C (32 °F) for several months, and snow can be heavy). In the east and north, winters are much more severe, with cold snaps bringing temperatures down to −20 °C (−4 °F) all the way to the Rio Grande on the Atlantic coast. Snow can fall even in the summer in most areas, as well.[56][57]
The fauna of Patagonia was heavily decimated by theend-Pleistocene extinction event around 12–10,000 years ago that resulted in the extinction of most large (megafaunal) animal species native to the region (as well as across the Americas). Species formerly present in the region include the large cow-sized ground slothMylodon, the large camel-like ungulateMacrauchenia, indigenous equines belonging to the genusHippidion, the giant short-faced bearArctotherium, and the large sabertooth catSmilodon.[60] The extinct foxDusicyon avus (a close relative of theFalkland Islands wolf) also formerly inhabited the region, until apparently becoming extinct around 500–400 years ago.[61] Patagonia was inhabited by thejaguar subspeciesPanthera onca mesembrina, considerably larger than today's jaguars, during the Pleistocene,[60] with jaguars continuing to inhabit Patagonia until the late 19th century, but nowextirpated from the region.[62]
Bird life is often abundant. Thecrested caracara (Caracara plancus) is one of the characteristic aspects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence ofaustral parakeets (Enicognathus ferrugineus) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators, andgreen-backed firecrowns (Sephanoides sephaniodes), a species ofhummingbird, may be seen flying amid the snowfall. One of the largest birds in the world, theAndean condor (Vultur gryphus) can be seen in Patagonia.[63] Of the many kinds of waterfowl[58] theChilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), theupland goose (Chloephaga picta), and in the strait, the remarkablesteamer ducks are found.[54]
Map of the indigenous peoples of southern Patagonia
Human habitation of the region dates back thousands of years,[67] with some early archaeological findings in the area dated to at least the13th millennium BC, although later dates around the10th millennium BC are more securely recognized. Evidence exists of human activity atMonte Verde inLlanquihue Province, Chile, dated to around 14,500 yearsBefore Present (~12,500 BC).[38] The glacial-period ice fields and subsequent large meltwater streams would have made settlement difficult at that time.
The region seems to have been inhabited continuously since 10,000 BC by various cultures and alternating waves of migration, the details of which are as yet poorly understood. Several sites have been excavated, notably caves such asCueva del Milodon[68] in Última Esperanza in southern Patagonia, andTres Arroyos on Tierra del Fuego, that support this date.[38] Hearths, stone scrapers, and animal remains dated to 9400–9200 BC have been found east of the Andes.[38]
At the close of the Pleistocene around 12–11,000 years ago (10,000-9,000 BC)Fishtail projectile points (a type of knapped stone spear point) were widespread across Patagonia (along with much of the rest of South America).[69] At several sites these points have been found associated with extinct megafauna, including the large ground slothMylodon and the native equineHippidion.[70][71][72]
TheCueva de las Manos is a famous site in Santa Cruz, Argentina. This cave at the foot of a cliff is covered in wall paintings, particularly the negative images of hundreds of hands, believed to date from around 8000 BC.[38]
Based on artifacts found in the region, apparently hunting of guanaco, and to a lesser extentrhea (ñandú), were the primary food sources of tribes living on the eastern plains.[38] It is also not clear if domestic dogs were part of early human activity.Bolas are commonly found and were used to catchguanaco andrhea.[38] A maritime tradition existed along the Pacific coast,[73] whose latest exponents were theYaghan (Yámana) to the south of Tierra del Fuego, theKaweshqar betweenTaitao Peninsula and Tierra del Fuego, and theChono people in theChonos Archipelago.[citation needed] TheSelkʼnam,Haush, and Tehuelche are generally thought to be culturally and linguistically related peoplesphysically distinct from the sea-faring peoples.[74]
Agriculture was practised in Pre-Hispanic Argentina as far south as southernMendoza Province.[77] Agriculture was at times practised beyond this limit in nearby areas of Patagonia but populations reverted at times to non-agricultural lifestyles.[77] By the time of the Spanish arrival to the area (1550s) there is no record of agriculture being practised in northern Patagonia.[77] The extensivePatagonian grasslands and an associated abundance ofguanaco game may have contributed for the indigenous populations to favour a hunter-gathered lifestyle.[77]
Theindigenous peoples of the region included theTehuelches, whose numbers and society were reduced to near extinction not long after the first contacts with Europeans. Tehuelches included theGununa'kena to the north,Mecharnuekenk in south-central Patagonia, and theAonikenk or Southern Tehuelche in the far south, north of the Magellan strait. OnIsla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, theSelkʼnam (Ona) andHaush (Manek'enk) lived in the north and southeast, respectively. In the archipelagos to the south of Tierra del Fuego were Yámana, with theKawéskar (Alakaluf) in the coastal areas and islands in western Tierra del Fuego and the southwest of the mainland.[38] In the Patagonian archipelagoes north ofTaitao Peninsula lived theChonos. These groups were encountered in the first periods of European contact with different lifestyles, body decoration, and language, although it is unclear when this configuration emerged.
Towards the end of the 16th century,Mapuche-speaking agriculturalists penetrated the western Andes and from there across into the eastern plains and down to the far south. Through confrontation and technological ability, they came to dominate the other peoples of the region in a short period of time, and are the principal indigenous community today.[38]
Navigators such asGonçalo Coelho andAmerigo Vespucci possibly had reached the area (his own account of 1502 has it that they reached the latitude 52°S), but Vespucci's failure to accurately describe the main geographical features of the region such as theRío de la Plata casts doubts on whether they really did so.
The first or more detailed description of part of the coastline of Patagonia is possibly mentioned in a Portuguese voyage in 1511–1512, traditionally attributed to captain Diogo Ribeiro, who after his death was replaced by Estevão de Frois, and was guided by the pilot andcosmographerJoão de Lisboa). The explorers, after reaching Rio de la Plata (which they would explore on the return voyage, contacting theCharrúa and other peoples) eventually reachedSan Matias Gulf, at 42°S. The expedition reported that after going south of the 40th parallel, they found a "land" or a "point extending into the sea", and further south, a gulf. The expedition is said to have rounded the gulf for nearly 300 km (186 mi) and sighted the continent on the southern side of the gulf.[78][79]
The Atlantic coast of Patagonia was first fully explored in 1520 by theSpanish expedition led byFerdinand Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of its more striking features – San Matías Gulf, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simplyCape Virgenes), and others.[54] Magellan's fleet spent a difficult winter at what he namedPuerto San Julián before resuming its voyage further south on 21 August 1520. During this time, it encountered the local inhabitants, likely to beTehuelche people, described by his reporter, Antonio Pigafetta, as giants calledPatagons.[80]
Rodrigo de Isla, sent inland in 1535 from San Matías by Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor (on whom Patagonia had been conferred byCharles I of Spain, is presumed to have been the first European to have traversed the great Patagonian plain. If the men under his charge had not mutinied, he might have crossed theAndes to reach the Pacific coast.
Community of jurisdictions of the Governorate of La Plata and the Captaincy General of Chile between 1570 and 1661 according toManuel Ravest Mora.[81]
Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next bestowed, foundedBuenos Aires, but did not venture south.Francisco de Camargo (1536),Alonso de Camargo (1539),Juan Ladrilleros (1557), andHurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to make known the Pacific coasts, and whileSir Francis Drake's voyage in 1577 down the Atlantic coast, through theStrait of Magellan and northward along the Pacific coast, was memorable,[54] yet the descriptions of the geography of Patagonia owe much more to the Spanish explorerPedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (1579–1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The settlements that he founded atNombre de Jesús and San Felipe was neglected by the Spanish government, the latter being abandoned beforeThomas Cavendish visited it in 1587 during hiscircumnavigation, and so desolate that he called itPort Famine.[54] After the discovery of the route around Cape Horn, the Spanish Crown lost interest in southern Patagonia until the 18th century, when the coastal settlements Carmen de Patagones, San José, Puerto Deseado, and Nueva Colonia Floridablanca were established, although it maintained its claim of ade jure sovereignty over the area.
The district aroundPuerto Deseado was explored and claimed in 1670 by SirJohn Narborough for KingCharles II of England, but the English made no attempt to establish settlements or explore the interior.
The first European explorers of Patagonia observed that the indigenous people in the region were taller than the average Europeans of the time, prompting some of them to believe that Patagonians were giants.
According to Antonio Pigafetta,[20] one of the Magellan expedition's few survivors and its published chronicler, Magellan bestowed the namePatagão (orPatagón) on the inhabitants they encountered there, and the name "Patagonia" for the region. Although Pigafetta's account does not describe how this name came about, subsequent popular interpretations gave credence to a derivation meaning "land of the big feet". However, thisetymology is questionable. The term is most likely derived from an actual character name, "Patagón", a savage creature confronted by Primaleón of Greece, the hero in the homonymous Spanish chivalry novel (orknight-errantry tale) by Francisco Vázquez.[82] This book, published in 1512, was the sequel of the romancePalmerín de Oliva;it was much in vogue at the time, and a favorite reading of Magellan. Magellan's perception of the natives, dressed in skins, and eating raw meat, clearly recalled the uncivilized Patagón in Vázquez's book. Novelist and travel writerBruce Chatwin suggests etymological roots of both Patagon and Patagonia in his book,In Patagonia,[83] noting the similarity between "Patagon" and theGreek word παταγος,[citation needed] which means "a roaring" or "gnashing of teeth" (in his chronicle, Pigafetta describes the Patagonians as "roaring like bulls").
The main interest in the region sparked by Pigafetta's account came from his reports of their meeting with the local inhabitants, whom they claimed to measure some 9 to 12 feet in height – "so tall that we reached only to his waist" – hence the later idea that Patagonia meant "big feet". This supposed race of Patagonian giants orPatagones entered into the common European perception of this then little-known and distant area, to be further fueled by subsequent reports of other expeditions and famous travelers such as Sir Francis Drake, which seemed to confirm these accounts.[citation needed] Early charts of theNew World sometimes added the legendregio gigantum ("region of the giants") to the Patagonian area. By 1611, the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers ofThe Tempest.[54]
The concept and general belief persisted for a further 250 years and was to be sensationally reignited in 1767 when an "official" (but anonymous) account was published ofCommodoreJohn Byron's recent voyage of globalcircumnavigation inHMSDolphin. Byron and crew had spent some time along the coast, and the publication (Voyage Round the World in His Majesty's Ship the Dolphin) seemed to give proof positive of their existence; the publication became an overnight bestseller, thousands of extra copies were to be sold to a willing public, and other prior accounts of the region were hastily republished (even those in which giant-like folk were not mentioned at all).
However, the Patagonian giant frenzy died down substantially only a few years later, when some more sober and analytical accounts were published. In 1773,John Hawkesworth published on behalf of theAdmiralty a compendium of noted English southern-hemisphere explorers' journals, including that ofJames Cook and John Byron. In this publication, drawn from their official logs, the people Byron's expedition had encountered clearly were no taller than 6-foot-6-inch (1.98 m), very tall but by no means giants. Interest soon subsided, although awareness of and belief in the concept persisted in some quarters even into the 20th century.[84]
The failure of the Spanish colonization of the Strait of Magellan made theChiloé Archipelago play an essential role as a Spanish base for protecting western Patagonia from the intrusion of other powers.[85]Valdivia, reestablished in 1645, and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected information and rumors from all over Patagonia.[86]
As a result of the privateer and pirate menace, Spanish authorities ordered the depopulation of theGuaitecas Archipelago to deprive enemies of any eventual support from native populations.[24] This then led to the transfer of the majority of the indigenousChono population to the Chiloé Archipelago in the north while some Chonos moved south ofTaitao Peninsula effectively depopulating the territory in the 18th century.[24]
The publication ofThomas Falkner's bookA Description of Patagonia and the Adjacent Parts of South America in England fuelled speculations in Spain about renewed British interest in Patagonia. In response an order from theKing of Spain was issued to settle the eastern coast of Patagonia.[87] This led to the brief existence of colonies at theGulf of San Jorge (1778–1779) andSan Julián (1780–1783) and the more longlasting colony ofCarmen de Patagones.[87]
In the second half of the 18th century, European knowledge of Patagonia was further augmented by the voyages of the previously mentioned John Byron (1764–1765),Samuel Wallis (1766, in the same HMSDolphin which Byron had earlier sailed in) andLouis Antoine de Bougainville (1766).Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published hisDescription of Patagonia (Hereford, 1774);Francisco Viedma foundedEl Carmen, nowadaysCarmen de Patagones and Antonio settled the area ofSan Julian Bay, where he founded the colony ofFloridablanca and advanced inland to the Andes (1782).Basilio Villarino ascended the Rio Negro (1782).[54]
Twohydrographic surveys of the coasts were of first-rate importance; the first expedition (1826–1830) includedHMSAdventure andHMSBeagle underPhillip Parker King, and the second (1832–1836) was thevoyage of theBeagle underRobert FitzRoy. The latter expedition is particularly noted for the participation ofCharles Darwin, who spent considerable time investigating various areas of Patagonia onshore, including long rides withgauchos inRío Negro, and who joined FitzRoy in a 200 mi (320 km) expedition taking ships' boats up the course of theSanta Cruz River.[54]
During the independence wars, rumours about the imminent arrival of Spanish troops to Patagonia, either from Peru or Chiloé, were common among indigenous peoples of the Pampas and northern Patagonia.[88] In 1820 Chilean patriot leaderJosé Miguel Carrera allied with the indigenousRanquel people of thePampas to fight the rival patriots in Buenos Aires.[88] José Miguel Carrera ultimately planned to cross the Andes into Chile and oust his rivals in Chile.
The last royalist armed group in what is today Argentina and Chile, thePincheira brothers, moved from the vicinities of Chillán across the Andes into northern Patagonia as patriots consolidated control of Chile. The Pincheira brothers was an outlaw gang made of Europeans Spanish, American Spanish, Mestizos and local indigenous peoples.[89] This group was able to move to Patagonia thanks to its alliance with two indigenous tribes, the Ranqueles and theBoroanos.[89][88] In the interior of Patagonia, far from the de facto territory of Chile and the United Provinces, the Pincheira brothers established permanent encampment with thousands of settlers.[89] From their bases the Pincheiras led numerous raids into the countryside of the newly established republics.[88]
In the early 19th century, thearaucanization of the natives of northern Patagonia intensified, and manyMapuches migrated to Patagonia to live as nomads that raised cattle or pillaged the Argentine countryside. The cattle stolen in the incursions (malones) were later taken to Chile through the mountain passes and traded for goods, especially alcoholic beverages. The main trail for this trade was calledCamino de los chilenos and runs a length around 1,000 km (620 mi) from theBuenos Aires Province to themountain passes ofNeuquén Province. TheloncoCalfucurá crossed theAndes from Chile to the pampas around 1830, after a call from the governor ofBuenos Aires,Juan Manuel de Rosas, to fight theBoroano people. In 1859, he attackedBahía Blanca in Argentina with 3,000 warriors. As in the case of Calfucura, many other bands of Mapuches got involved in the internal conflicts of Argentina untilConquest of the Desert. To counter the cattle raids, a trench called theZanja de Alsina was built by Argentina in the pampas in the 1870s.
Chile's effective presence in Southern Patagonia (1843-1879).
In the mid-19th century, the newly independent nations of Argentina and Chile began an aggressive phase of expansion into the south, increasing confrontation with the Indigenous peoples of the region. In 1860, French adventurerOrelie-Antoine de Tounens proclaimed himself king of theKingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia of theMapuche.
Following the last instructions ofBernardo O'Higgins, the Chilean presidentManuel Bulnes sent anexpedition to the Strait of Magellan and foundedFuerte Bulnes in 1843. Five years later, the Chilean government moved the main settlement to the current location ofPunta Arenas, the oldest permanent settlement in Southern Patagonia. The creation of Punta Arenas was instrumental in making Chile's claim of the Strait of Magellan permanent. In the 1860s, sheep from theFalkland Islands were introduced to the lands around the Straits of Magellan, and throughout the 19th century, sheepfarming grew to be the most important economic sector in southern Patagonia.[citation needed]
George Chaworth Musters in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the northwest, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.[54][95]
Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography.[96]Under GeneralRoca, theConquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia
Argentine authorities worried that the strong connections araucanized tribes had with Chile would allegedly give Chile certain influence over the pampas.[97] Argentine authorities feared that in an eventual war with Chile over Patagonia, the natives would side with the Chileans and the war would be brought to the vicinity of Buenos Aires.[97]
The decision to plan and execute the Conquest of the Desert was probably catalyzed by the 1872 attack ofCufulcurá and his 6,000 followers on the cities ofGeneral Alvear,Veinticinco de Mayo, andNueve de Julio, where 300criollos were killed, and 200,000 heads of cattle taken. In the 1870s, the Conquest of the Desert was a controversial campaign by the Argentine government, executed mainly byGeneral Julio Argentino Roca, to subdue or, some claim, to exterminate the native peoples of the south.
In 1885, a mining expeditionary party under theRomanian adventurerJulius Popper landed in southern Patagonia in search of gold, which they found after traveling southwards towards the lands of Tierra del Fuego. This led to the further opening up of the area to prospectors. European missionaries and settlers arrived throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, notably theWelsh settlement of theChubut Valley. NumerousCroatians also settled in Patagonia.[98]
During the first years of the 20th century, the border between the two nations in Patagonia was established by the mediation of the British crown. Numerous modifications have been made since then, the last conflict having been resolved in 1994 by an arbitration tribunal constituted inRio de Janeiro. It granted Argentina sovereignty over theSouthern Patagonia Icefield,Cerro Fitz Roy, andLaguna del Desierto.[99][100][circular reference]
Until 1902, a large proportion of Patagonia's population were natives ofChiloé Archipelago (Chilotes), who worked as peons in large livestock-farmingestancias. Because they weremanual laborers, their social status was below that of thegauchos and the Argentine, Chilean, and European landowners and administrators.
Before and after 1902, when the boundaries were drawn, Argentina expelled many Chilotes from their territory, as they feared that having a large Chilean population in Argentina could pose a risk to their future control. These workers founded the first inland Chilean settlement in what is now theAysén Region;[101][102]Balmaceda. Lacking good grasslands on the forest-covered Chilean side, the immigrants burned down the forest, setting fires that could last more than two years.[102]
Tierra del Fuego sheep ranch, 1942: The region's primary activity then, it has been eclipsed by the decline in the globalwool market as much as bypetroleum andgas extraction.
The area's principal economic activities have been mining, whaling, livestock (notably sheep throughout) agriculture (wheat and fruit production near the Andes towards the north), and oil after its discovery nearComodoro Rivadavia in 1907.[103]
TheLlao Llao Hotel in San Carlos deBariloche. The city is the largest tourist destination in all of Patagonia.
Energy production is also a crucial part of the local economy. Railways were planned to cover continental Argentine Patagonia to serve the oil, mining, agricultural, and energy industries, and a line was built connectingSan Carlos de Bariloche to Buenos Aires. Portions of other lines were built to the south, but the only lines still in use areLa Trochita inEsquel, theTrain of the End of the World in Ushuaia, bothheritage lines,[104]and a short run Tren Histórico deBariloche to Perito Moreno.
In the western forest-covered Patagonian Andes and archipelagoes,wood logging has historically been an important part of the economy; it impelled the colonization of the areas of theNahuel Huapi andLácar lakes in Argentina andGuaitecas Archipelago in Chile.
Sheep farming introduced in the late 19th century has been a principal economic activity. After reaching its heights during the First World War, the decline in world wool prices affected sheep farming in Argentina. Nowadays, about half of Argentina's 15 million sheep are in Patagonia, a percentage that is growing as sheep farming disappears in the pampas to the north. Chubut (mainlyMerino) is the top wool producer with Santa Cruz (Corriedale and some Merino) second. Sheep farming revived in 2002 with the devaluation of the peso and firmer global demand for wool (led by China and the EU). Still, little investment occurs in new abattoirs (mainly in Comodoro Rivadavia, Trelew, and Rio Gallegos), and oftenphytosanitary restrictions reduce the export of sheep meat. Extensive valleys in theCordilleran Range have provided sufficient grazing lands, and the low humidity and weather of the southern region make raising Merino and Corriedale sheep common.
Livestock also includes small numbers of cattle, and in lesser numbers, pigs and horses. Sheep farming provides a small but important number of jobs for rural areas with little other employment.
In the second half of the 20th century, tourism became an ever more important part of Patagonia's economy. Originally a remote backpacking destination, the region has attracted increasing numbers of upmarket visitors, cruise passengers roundingCape Horn or visiting Antarctica, and adventure and activity holiday-makers. Principal tourist attractions include thePerito Moreno glacier, theValdés Peninsula, theArgentine Lake District and Ushuaia and Tierra del Fuego (the city is also a jumping-off place for travel to Antarctica, bringing in still more visitors). Tourism has created new markets locally and for export for traditional crafts such as Mapuche handicrafts, guanaco textiles, and confectionery and preserves.[103]
A spin-off from increased tourism has been the buying of often enormous tracts of land by foreigners, often as a prestige purchase rather than for agriculture. Buyers have includedSylvester Stallone,Ted Turner, andChristopher Lambert, and most notablyLuciano Benetton, Patagonia's largest landowner.[103] His "Compañia de Tierras Sud" has brought new techniques to the ailing sheep-rearing industry and sponsored museums and community facilities, but has been controversial particularly for its treatment of local Mapuche communities.[105]
La Trochita on itsChubut Province route: Formerly the sole rapid transport means in the province,La Trochita is now a tourist attraction.
Due to its sparse rainfall in agricultural areas, Argentine Patagonia already has numerous dams for irrigation, some of which are also used for hydropower. TheLimay River is used to generate hydroelectricity at five dams built on its course:Alicurá,Piedra del Águila,Pichi Picún Leufú,El Chocón, andArroyito. Together with theCerros Colorados Complex on theNeuquén River, they contribute more than one-quarter of the total hydroelectric generation in the country.
Patagonia has always been Argentina's main area, and Chile's only area, of conventional oil and gas production. Oil and gas have played an important role in the rise of Neuquén-Cipolleti as Patagonia's most populous urban area, and in the growth ofComodoro Rivadavia, Punta Arenas, and Rio Grande, as well. The development of the Neuquén basin's enormousunconventional oil and gas reserves through hydraulic fracturing has just begun, but theYPF-Chevron Loma Campana field in the Vaca Muerta formation is already the world's largest producing shale oil field outside North America according to former YPF CEO Miguel Gallucio.
Patagonia's notorious winds have already made the area Argentina's main source of wind power, and plans have been made for major increases in wind power generation. Coal is mined in theRio Turbio area and used for electricity generation.
Argentine Patagonian cuisine is largely the same as the cuisine of Buenos Aires – grilled meats and pasta – with extensive[106] use of local ingredients and less use of those products that have to be imported into the region. Lamb is considered the traditional Patagonian meat, grilled for several hours over an open fire. Some guide books have reported that game meats, especially guanaco and introduced deer and boar, are popular in restaurant cuisine. However, since guanaco is a protected animal in both Chile and Argentina, it is unlikely to appear commonly as restaurant fare. Trout andcentolla (king crab) are also common, though overfishing ofcentolla has made it increasingly scarce. In the area around Bariloche, a notedAlpine cuisine tradition remains, with chocolate bars and evenfondue restaurants, andtea rooms are a feature of theWelsh communities inGaiman andTrevelin, as well as in the mountains.[103] Since the mid-1990s, some success with winemaking has occurred in Argentine Patagonia, especially in Neuquén.
Foreign investors, including Italian multinationalBenetton Group, media magnateTed Turner, British billionaireJoe Lewis[107] and the conservationistDouglas Tompkins, own major land areas. This situation has caused several conflicts with local inhabitants and the governments of Chile and Argentina, for example, the opposition by Douglas Tompkins to the planned route forCarretera Austral inPumalín Park. A scandal is also brewing about two properties owned by Ted Turner: theestancia La Primavera, located insideNahuel Huapi National Park, and theestancia Collón Cura.[107] Benetton has faced criticism from Mapuche organizations, includingMapuche International Link, over its purchase of traditional Mapuche lands in Patagonia. The Curiñanco-Nahuelquir family was evicted from their land in 2002 following Benetton's claim to it, but the land was restored in 2007.[108][109]
InJules Verne's 1867–1868 novelLes Enfants du capitaine Grant (The Children of Captain Grant, alternatively 'In Search of the Castaways'), the search for Captain Grant gets underway when theDuncan, a vessel in the ownership ofLord Glenarvan, is taken on a journey to the western shore of South America's Patagonian region where the crew is split up, and Lord Glenarvan proceeds to lead a party eastwards across Patagonia to eventually reunite with theDuncan (which had doubled the Cape in the meanwhile).
Thefuture history depicted inOlaf Stapledon's 1930 novelLast and First Men includes a far future time in which Patagonia becomes the center of a new world civilization while Europe and North America are reduced to the status of backward poverty-stricken areas.
InWilliam Goldman's 1987 movieThe Princess Bride, Westley, the current inheritor of the moniker "theDread Pirate Roberts", states that the "real" (original) Dread Pirate Roberts is retired and "living like a king in Patagonia".
InMadeleine l'Engle'sA Swiftly Tilting Planet, the fictional country Vespugia is "set in the middle of what used to be called Patagonia, a sizeable area along what are now the boundaries of Chile and Argentina".
^Rabassa, Jorge (2008).The Late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Elsevier. pp. 1–12.
^The Late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego Volumen 11 de Developments in quaternary science, p. 13. Author: Jorge Rabassa. Editor: Jorge Rabassa. Editor: Elsevier, 2008.ISBN0-444-52954-3, 9780444529541
^Manuel Enrique Schilling; Richard Walter Carlson; Andrés Tassara; Rommulo Vieira Conceição; Gustavo Walter Bertotto; Manuel Vásquez; Daniel Muñoz; Tiago Jalowitzki; Fernanda Gervasoni; Diego Morata (2017). "The origin of Patagonia revealed by Re-Os systematics of mantle xenoliths."Precambrian Research, volumen 294: 15–32.
^Zunino, H.; Matossian, B.; Hidalgo, R. (2012). "Poblamiento y desarrollo de enclaves turísticos en la Norpatagonia chileno-argentina. Migración y frontera en un espacio binacional." (Population and development of tourist enclaves in the Chilean-Argentine Norpatagonia. Migration and the border in a binational space),Revista de Geografía Norte Grande, 53: 137–158.
^Zunino, M.; Espinoza, L.; Vallejos-Romero A. (2016) Los migrantes por estilo de vida como agentes de transformación en la Norpatagonia chilena,Revista de Estudios Sociales, 55 (2016): 163–176.
^Ciudadanía, territorio y desarrollo endógeno: resistencias y mediaciones de las políticas locales en las encrucijadas del neoliberalismo. P. 205. Authors: Rubén Zárate, Liliana Artesi, Oscar Madoery. Editor: Editorial Biblos, 2007.ISBN950-786-616-7, 9789507866166
^Bengoa, José (2000).Historia del pueblo mapuche: Siglo XIX y XX. Lom Ediciones. pp. 25–32.
^Bridges, Lucas (1948).The Uttermost Part of the Earth. Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 37–45.
^Mandrini, Raúl (1992).Los pueblos originarios del Río de la Plata. Mapfre. pp. 112–118.
Patagon, said to be engendred by a beast in the woods, being the strangest, most misshapen, and counterfeit creature in the world. He hath good understanding, is amorous of women, and keepeth company with one of whom, it is said, he was engendred. He hath the face of a Dogge, great ears, which hang down upon his shoulders, his teeth sharp and big, standing out of his mouth very much: his feet are like a Harts, and he runneth wondrous lightly. Such as have seen him, tell marvelous matters of him, because he chaseth ordinarily among the mountains, with two Lyons in a chain like a lease, and a bow in his hand.Anthony Munday,The Famous and Renowned Historie of Primaleon of Greece, 1619, cap.XXXIII: "How Primaleon... found the Grand Patagon".
^Fondebrider, Jorge (2003). "Chapter 1 – Ámbitos y voces".Versiones de la Patagonia (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Emecé Editores S.A. p. 29.ISBN978-950-04-2498-1.
^Robert Silverberg (2011)."The Strange Case of the Patagonian Giants"(PDF).Asimov's Science Fiction. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 August 2020. Retrieved12 November 2016.To the voyagers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the average height of an adult European male was just over five feet [1.55 meters], the Patagonians surely must have looked very large, as, to any child, all adults seem colossal. Then, too, an element of understandable human exaggeration must have entered these accounts of men who had traveled so far and endured so much, and the natural wish not to be outdone by one's predecessors helped to produce these repeated fantasies of Goliaths ten feet tall or even more.
^Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 59 (1): pp. 37–78. 2011. ISSN 0185-0121
^Stefani, Catalina Lidia (2020). "Una mirada historiográfica sobre la construcción de la toponimia departamental del Territorio Nacional del Chubut".Revista TEFROS.18 (2):139–151.
^Núñez, Andrés (2019).Patagonia: Identidades, Representaciones y Territorios. Universidad de Chile. pp. 21–34.
^Williams, Gwyn (2022).The Welsh in Patagonia. University of Wales Press. pp. 55–67.
^Jaramillo, Jessica (6 April 2014)."Entrevista al Dr. Víctor Alberto Ramos, Premio México Ciencia y Tecnología 2013" (in Spanish).Incluso ahora continúa la discusión sobre el origen de la Patagonia, la cual lleva más de veinte años sin lograr un consenso entre la comunidad científica. Lo que propone el grupo de investigación en el que trabaja el geólogo es que la Patagonia se originó en el continente Antártico, para después separarse y formar parte de Gondwana, alrededor de 250 a 270 millones de años.
^U.S. Energy Information Administration,Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale Formations in 41 Countries Outside the United States, June 2013, pp. V-1 through V-13. According to the same study, the Austral (Argentine name) or Magallanes (Chilean name) basin under the southern Patagonian mainland and Tierra del Fuego may also have massive hydrocarbon reserves in early Cretaceous shales; see pp. V-23 and VII-17 in particular. On 21 May 2014, YPF also announced the first oil and gas discovery in the D-129 shale formation of the Golfo San Jorge area in Chubut, and on 14 August 2014, the first shale oil discovery in yet another Cretaceous formation in the Neuquén basin, the Valanginian/Hauterivian Agrio formation; see"YPF confirmó la presencia de hidrocarburos no convencionales en Chubut". Archived fromthe original on 26 May 2014. Retrieved27 May 2014., and"Galuccio inauguró el Espacio de la Energía de YPF en Tecnópolis". Archived fromthe original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved18 August 2014.
^Guillaume, Benjamin; Gautheron, Cécile; Simon-Labric, Thibaud; Martinod, Joseph; Roddaz, Martin; Douville, Eric (2013). "Dynamic topography control on Patagonian relief evolution as inferred from low temperature thermochronology".Earth and Planetary Science Letters.364:157–167.Bibcode:2013E&PSL.364..157G.doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.12.036.
^Rhys, David Hall (1976).A geographic study of the Welsh colonization in Chubut, Patagonia. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox University Microfilms. pp. 84–88.
^Chapman, Anne; Hester, Thomas R. (1973). "New data on the archaeology of the Haush: Tierra del Fuego".Journal de la Société des Américaniste.62:185–208.doi:10.3406/jsa.1973.2088.
^Ulijaszek, Stanley J.; Johnston, Francis E.; Preece, M. A., eds. (1998). "Patagonian Giants: Myths and Possibilities".The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Growth and Development. Cambridge University Press. p. 380.
^abcdRatto, Silvia (2008). "¿Revolución en las pampas? Diplomacia y malones entre indígenas de pampa y patagonia". In Fradkin, Raúl O. (ed.).¿Y el Pueblo dónde está? Contribuciones para una historia popular de la revolución de independencia en el Río de la Plata (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros. pp. 241–246.ISBN978-987-574-248-2.
^Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield (1853).Discusión de los títulos del Gobierno de Chile a las tierras del Estrecho de Magallanes. Imprenta Argentina.
^Eyzaguirre, Jaime (1967).Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile. Editorial Universitaria.
^Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985).Los Títulos Históricos: Historia de Las Fronteras de Chile. Andrés Bello.(p. 197) We note that the Loa river is at 22 degrees and that Baleato, in 1793, indicated 21.5 degrees for the beginning of the Kingdom of Chile, with the Loa at its mouth in the Pacific. (...) (p. 540) According to the Map of Cano y Olmedilla, the limit of the Kingdom of Chile "(...) through the desert of Atacama (...) From here it turns to the S., S.E., S.E., and S., keeping in general this last course until near the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction. SE. and S., generally keeping this last course until the vicinity of the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction, skirting to the east the 'Province of Cuyo' which, of course, appears to be included in the territory of the Kingdom of Chile. In the latitude of 32°30' the line turns to the S.W. until reaching the Quinto river, which, as the legend says 'communicates by channels with the Saladillo in time of floods'. It follows the river down to the meridian 316°, counting to the E. of Tenerife, where it turns a stretch until it reaches the Hueuque-Leuvu river (or Barrancas river) at 371/2° latitude. From here it runs along the river for a stretch to the S.E., and then turns to the E. and falls into the Atlantic Sea in the vicinity of parallel 37° between Cape Lobos and Cape Corrientes", "a little north of the current Mar del Plata". (...) (p. 543) In this document it is seen that those of the province of Cuyo end to the south at the source of the Diamante River, and that from that point to the east, the dividing line goes to the point where the Quinto River crosses the road that goes from Santiago to Buenos Aires.
Adventures in Patagonia: a missionary's exploring trip, Titus Coan, 1880. Library of Congress Control Number 03009975. A list of writings relating to Patagonia, 320–21.
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