According to theBook of Exodus,God commandedMoses to tell the Israelites to slaughter a lamb and mark their doorframes with its blood, in addition to instructions for consuming the lamb that night. For that night, God would send theAngel of Death to bring about thetenth plague, in which he wouldsmite all the firstborn in Egypt. But when the angel saw the blood on the Israelites' doorframes, he wouldpass over their homes so that the plague should not enter (hence the name.) The story is part of the broader Exodus narrative, in which the Israelites, while living in Egypt, are enslaved en masse by the Pharaoh to suppress them; when Pharaoh refuses God's demand to let them go, God sendsten plagues upon Egypt. After the tenth plague, Pharaoh permits the Israelites to leave.[3] Scholars widely believe that the origins of Passover predate the biblical Exodus, with theories suggesting it evolved from earlier semi-nomadic or pre-Israelite rituals and was later transformed through religious and cultic traditions.[4]
This story is recounted at thePassover Seder by reading theHaggadah. The Haggadah is a standardized ritual account of the Exodus story, in fulfillment of the command "And thou shalt tell [Higgadata] thy son in that day, saying: It is because of that which the LORD did for me when I came forth out of Egypt."[5]
Pesach starts on the 15th day of theHebrew month ofNisan, which is considered the first month of the Hebrew year. The Rabbinical Jewish calendar is adjusted to align with the solar calendar in such a way that 15 Nisan always coincides with Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, or Saturday. The Hebrew day starts and ends at sunset, so the holiday starts at sunset the day before. For example, in 2024, 15 Nisan coincided with Tuesday, April 23. Therefore, Pesach started atsundown on Monday, April 22.
Biblical Hebrew:פֶּסַח is rendered asTiberian[pɛsaħ]ⓘ, andModern Hebrew:[ˈpesaχ]Pesaḥ, Pesakh. The verbpāsaḥ (פָּסַח) is first mentioned in theTorah's account of the Exodus,[6] and there is some debate about its exact meaning. The commonly held assumption that it means "He passed over" (פסח), in reference to God "passing over" (or "skipping") the houses of the Hebrews during the final of the Ten Plagues of Egypt, stems from the translation provided in the Septuagint (Ancient Greek:παρελεύσεται,romanized: pareleusetai in Exodus 12:23,[6] andἐσκέπασεν,eskepasen in Exodus 12:27.)[3] TheTargum Onkelos, written inJewish Babylonian Aramaic, translatespesach asHebrew:וְיֵחוֹס,romanized: wəyēḥos,lit. 'he had pity', coming from the Hebrew rootחסה, meaning "to have pity".[7] Cognate languages yield similar terms with distinct meanings, such as "make soft, soothe, placate" (Akkadianpassahu), "harvest, commemoration, blow" (Egyptian), or "separate" (Arabicfsh).[8]
Pesach may also refer to thelamb orgoat which was designated as the Passover sacrifice. Four days before the Exodus, the Hebrews were commanded to set aside a lamb,[9] and inspect it daily for blemishes. During the day on 14th Nisan, they were to slaughter the animal and use its blood to mark theirlintels and door posts. Before midnight on 15th Nisan, they were to consume the lamb.
The English termPassover is first known to be recorded in theEnglish language inWilliam Tyndale's translation of the Bible,[10] later appearing in theKing James Version as well. It is a literal translation of the Hebrew term.[11] In the King James Version, Exodus 12:23 reads:
For the LORD will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and when he seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two side posts, the LORD will pass over the door, and will not suffer the destroyer to come in unto your houses to smite you.[12]
The Passover ritual is "a mitzvah commanded by Torah (rather than of rabbinic origin)."[13]
Apotropaic ritual
The Passover ritual is thought by modern scholars to have its origins in anapotropaic rite unrelated to the Exodus to ensure the protection of a family home, a rite conducted wholly within a clan.[14]Ezov was employed to daub the blood of a slaughtered sheep on the lintels and door posts to ensure that demonic forces could not enter the home.[15]
Barley harvest plus Exodus narrative
A further hypothesis maintains that once thePriestly Code was promulgated, the Exodus narrative took on a central function, as the apotropaic rite was, arguably, amalgamated with theCanaanite agricultural festival of spring which was a ceremony ofunleavened bread, connected with thebarley harvest. As the Exodus motif grew, the original function and symbolism of these double origins was lost.[16] Several motifs replicate the features associated with theAkitu spring festival ofancient Mesopotamian religion, which celebrates the sowing of barley.[17] ScholarsJohn Van Seters,Judah Segal, andTamara Prošić disagree with the merged two-festivals hypothesis.[18]
In theBook of Exodus, the Israelites are enslaved in ancient Egypt.Yahweh, the god of the Israelites, appears to Moses in aburning bush and commands Moses to confrontthe Pharaoh. To show his power, Yahweh inflicts a series often plagues on the Egyptians, culminating in the plague of the death of the firstborn.
Moses said, “Thus saysיהוה: Toward midnight I will go forth among the Egyptians, and every [male] first-born in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the first-born of the slave girl who is behind the millstones; and all the first-born of the cattle. And there shall be a loud cry in all the land of Egypt, such as has never been or will ever be again;
Before this final plague, Yahweh commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark alamb's blood above their doors so God will pass over them and the plague of the death of the firstborn will not afflict them.
The biblical regulations for the observance of the festival require that allleavening be disposed of before the beginning of the 15th of Nisan according to Exodus 13:7 An unblemished lamb or goat, known as thePassover sacrifice or "Paschal Lamb", is to be set apart on 10th Nisan,[9] and slaughtered at dusk as 14th Nisan ends in preparation for the 15th of Nisan when it will be eaten after being roasted.[19] The literal meaning of the Hebrew is "between the two evenings".[20] It is then to be eaten "that night", 15th Nisan,[21] roasted, without the removal of its internal organs[22] with unleavened bread, known as matzah, and bitter herbs known asmaror.[21] Nothing of the sacrifice on which the sun rises by the morning of the 15th of Nisan may be eaten, but must be burned.[23]
The biblical regulations of the original Passover at the time of the Exodus only also include how the meal was to be eaten: "your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hurriedly: it is a passover offering toיהוה."[24]
The biblical requirements of slaying the Paschal lamb in the individual homes of the Hebrews and smearing the blood of the lamb on their doorways were celebrated in Egypt. However, once Israel was in the wilderness and theTabernacle was in operation, a change was made in those two original requirements.[25] Passover lambs were to be sacrificed at the door of the Tabernacle and no longer in the homes of the Jews. No longer, therefore, could blood be smeared on doorways.
The Passover in other biblical passages
Called the "festival [of] the unleavened bread" (Biblical Hebrew:חג המצות,romanized: ḥaḡ ham-maṣoṯ) in theHebrew Bible, the commandment to keep Passover is recorded in theBook of Leviticus:
In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at dusk is the LORD's Passover. And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of unleavened bread unto the LORD; seven days ye shall eat unleavened bread. In the first day ye shall have a holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work. And ye shall bring an offering made by fire unto the LORD seven days; in the seventh day is a holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work.
The sacrifices may be performed only in a specific place prescribed by God. For Judaism, this is Jerusalem.[26]
The biblical commandments concerning the Passover (and the Feast of Unleavened Bread) stress the importance of remembering:
Exodus 12:14 commands about God's sparing of the firstborn from theTenth Plague: "And this day shall be unto you for a memorial, and ye shall keep it a feast to the LORD; throughout your generations ye shall keep it a feast by an ordinance for ever."[27]
Exodus 13:3 repeats the command to remember: "Remember this day, in which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of bondage, for by strength the hand of the LORD brought you out from this place."[28]
Deuteronomy 16:12: "And thou shalt remember that thou wast a bondman in Egypt; and thou shalt observe and do these statutes".[29]
In 2 Kings 23:21–23 and 2 Chronicles 35:1–19, KingJosiah ofJudah restores the celebration of the Passover,[30] to a standard not seen since the days of thejudges or the days of theprophetSamuel.[31]
Some of these details can be corroborated, and to some extent amplified, in extrabiblical sources. The removal (or "sealing up") of the leaven is referred to in theElephantine papyri and ostraca in anImperial Aramaic papyrus letter from the5th century BCE fromElephantine, Egypt.[33] The slaughter of the lambs on the 14th is mentioned inJubilees, a Jewish work of thePtolemaic period, and by theHerodian-era writersJosephus andPhilo. These sources also indicate that "between the two evenings" was taken to mean the afternoon.[34]Jubilees states the sacrifice was eaten that night,[35] and together with Josephus states that nothing of the sacrifice was allowed to remain until morning.[36] Philo states that the banquet included hymns and prayers.[37]
The Passover begins on the 15th day of the month ofNisan, which at present falls between March 26 and April 25 of theGregorian calendar.[38] The 15th day begins in the evening, after the 14th day, and the seder meal is eaten that evening. Passover is a spring festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of afull moon after the northernvernal equinox.[39] However, due toleap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox, as in 2016.
To ensure that Passover did not start before spring, the tradition in ancient Israel held that thelunar new year, the first day of Nisan, would not start until the barley was ripe, being the test for the onset of spring.[40] If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena[41] indicated that spring was not yet imminent, an intercalary month (Adar II) would be added. However, since at least the 4th century, the intercalation has been fixed mathematically according to theMetonic cycle.[42]
InIsrael, Passover is the seven-day holiday of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the first and last days celebrated as legal holidays and as holy days involving holiday meals, special prayer services, and abstention from work; the intervening days are known asChol HaMoed ("Weekdays [of] the Festival"). Jews outside of Israel celebrate the festival for eight days.Reform andReconstructionist Jews usually celebrate the holiday over seven days.[43][44][45]
Karaites use a different calendar; they rely on visual identification of ripe barley and the date of Passover cannot be determined before this.[46] Some modern Karaites follow the Rabbinical calendar in modern Israel because of social pressure.[47]
TheSamaritans use a calendrical system that uses a different method from that current in Rabbinic practice; it sometimes is the same date on the solar calendar, sometimes two days later, and sometimes an entire month later.[48] In 2024, Rabbinical Passover begins at sunset on 22 April. On the calendar used by the Samaritans, 22 April 2024 is also the day of the Passover sacrifice. Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread, for a total of seven days.[49]
The main entity in Passover according to Judaism is the sacrificial lamb[50] During the existence of theTabernacle and later theTemple in Jerusalem, the focus of the Passover festival was the Passover sacrifice, also known as the Paschal lamb, eaten during the Passover Seder on the 15th of Nisan. Every family large enough to completely consume a young lamb or wild goat was required to offer one for sacrifice at the Jewish Temple on the afternoon of the 14th day of Nisan,[51] and eat it that night, which was the 15th of Nisan.[52] If the family was too small to finish eating the entire offering in one sitting, an offering was made for a group of families. The sacrifice could not be offered with anything leavened,[53] and had to be roasted, without its head, feet, or inner organs being removed[54] and eaten together with unleavened bread and bitter herbs (maror). One had to be careful not to break any bones from the offering,[55] and none of the meat could be left over by morning.[56]
Because of the Passover sacrifice's status as a sacred offering, the only people allowed to eat it were those who had the obligation to bring the offering. Among those who could not offer or eat the Passover lamb were anapostate,[57] a servant,[58] anuncircumcised man,[59] a person in a state ofritual impurity except when a majority of Jews are in such a state,[60] and aGentile. The offering had to be made before aquorum of 30.[61] In the Temple, theLevites sangHallel while thepriests performed the sacrificial service. Men and women were equally obligated regarding the offering (Pesahim 91b).
Today, in the absence of the Temple, when no sacrifices are offered or eaten, themitzvah of the sacrifice is memorialized in theSeder Korban Pesach, a set of scriptural and Rabbinic passages dealing with the Passover sacrifice, customarily recited after theMincha (afternoon prayer) service on the 14th of Nisan,[62] and in the form of thezeroa, a symbolic food placed on thePassover Seder Plate (but not eaten), which is usually a roastedshankbone (or a chicken wing or neck). The eating of theafikoman substitutes for the eating of the sacrifice at the end of the Seder meal (Mishnah Pesachim 119a). ManySephardic Jews have the custom of eating lamb or goat meat during the Seder in memory of the sacrifice.
Washing dishes for passover (1657)Burning chametz on the morning before Passover begins
Leaven, in Hebrewchametz (Hebrew:חמץḥamets, "leavening") is made from one of five types of grains[63] combined with water and left to stand for more than eighteen minutes. The consumption, keeping, and owning ofchametz is forbidden during Passover. Yeast and fermentation are not themselves forbidden as seen for example by wine, which is required, rather than merely permitted. According to Halakha, the ownership of suchchametz is also proscribed.[64]
Chametz does not includebaking soda,baking powder or like products. Although these are defined in English as leavening agents, they leaven by chemical reaction, not by biological fermentation. Thus, bagels, waffles and pancakes made with baking soda and matzah meal are considered permissible, while bagels made with sourdough and pancakes and waffles made with yeast are prohibited.[65]
The Torah commandments regardingchametz are:
To remove allchametz from one's home, including things made with chametz, before the first day of Passover[66] It may be simply used up, thrown out (historically, destroyed by burning), or given or sold to non-Jews.
To refrain from eatingchametz or mixtures containingchametz during Passover.[67]
Not to possesschametz in one's domain (i.e. home, office, car, etc.) during Passover.[68]
Observant Jews spend the weeks before Passover in the process of thorough housecleaning, to remove allchametz from every part of the home.Jewish law requires the elimination ofolive-sized or larger quantities of leavening from one's possession, but most housekeeping goes beyond this. Even the seams of kitchen counters are thoroughly cleaned to remove traces of flour and yeast, however small. Any containers or implements that have touchedchametz are stored and not used during Passover.[69]
Interpretations for abstinence from leaven or yeast
Some scholars suggest that the command to abstain from leavened food or yeast suggests that sacrifices offered to God involve the offering of objects in "their least altered state", that would be nearest to the way in which they were initially made by God.[50][71] According to other scholars the absence of leaven or yeast means that leaven or yeast symbolizes corruption and spoiling.[50][72]
There are also variations with restrictions on eating matzah before Passover so that there will be an increased appetite for it during Passover itself. Primarily amongChabad Chassidim, there is a custom of not eating matzah (flat unleavened bread) in the 30 days before Passover begins.[73] Others have a custom to refrain from eating matzah from Rosh Chodesh Nissan, while thehalacha merely restricts one from eating matzah on the day before Passover.[74]
Kitniyot
Kitniyot (Hebrew: קִטְנִיּוֹת,qitniyyot; literally "small things") refers to legumes, rice, maize, and other foods that are similar to grains.Ashkenazi Jews historically refrain from eating kitniyot on Passover, despite there not being a clear commandment to include them in the category of chametz.[75] Since the 19th century, theReform movement has permitted eating kitniyot, and in 2015 theConservative movement followed suit.[76]Sephardi Jews have always permitted eating kitniyot on Passover.
Gebrochts
Gebrochts (Yiddish: געבראקטס,lit. 'broken', also known asHebrew: מצה שרויה,romanized:matzah shruya,lit. 'soaked matzah') refers tomatzah that has absorbed liquid. SomeHasidic Jews avoid gebrochts as well, to avoid the possibility that a clump of flour that was never properly mixed with water (and thus is still susceptible to leavening) may come into contact with the liquid.[77]
Chametz foods blocked from purchase during Passover in a Jerusalem supermarket
Leaven orchametz may be sold rather than discarded, especially in the case of relatively valuable forms such asliquordistilled from wheat, with the products being repurchased afterward. In some cases, they may never leave the house, instead being formally sold while remaining in the original owner's possession in a locked cabinet until they can be repurchased after the holiday. Modern observance may also include sealing cabinets and drawers which contain "Chametz" shut by using adhesive tape, which serves a similar purpose to a lock but also shows evidence of tampering. Although the practice of selling "Chametz" dates back many years, some Reform rabbinical authorities have come to regard it with disdain – since the supposed "new owner" never takes actual possession of the goods.[78]
The sale ofchametz may also be conducted communally via arabbi, who becomes the "agent" for all the community's Jews through a halakhic procedure called akinyan (acquisition). Each householder must put aside all thechametz he is selling into a box or cupboard, and the rabbi enters into a contract to sell all thechametz to a non-Jew (who is not obligated to celebrate the commandments) in exchange for a smalldown payment (e.g. $1.00), with the remainder due after Passover. This sale is considered completely binding according to Halakha, and at any time during the holiday, the buyer may come to take or partake of his property. The rabbi then re-purchases the goods for less than they were sold at the end of the holiday.[79]
On the night of the fourteenth ofNisan, the night before thePassover Seder (after nightfall on the evening before Passover eve), Jews do a formal search in their homes known asbedikat chametz for any possible remaining leaven (chametz). TheTalmudic sages instructed that a search forchametz be made in every home, place of work, or any place wherechametz may have been brought during the year.[80] When the first Seder is on a Saturday night, the search is conducted on the preceding Thursday night (thirteenth of Nisan) aschametz cannot be burned during Shabbat.
TheTalmud inPesahim (p. 2a) derives from theTorah that the search forchametz be conducted by the light of a candle and therefore is done at night, and although the final destruction of thechametz (usually by burning it in a small bonfire) is done on the next morning, the blessing is made at night because the search is both in preparation for and part of the commandments to remove and destroy allchametz from one's possession.[80]
Blessing for search and nullification of hametz
Before the search is begun there is a specialblessing. If several people or family members assist in the search then only one person, usually the head of that family recites the blessing having in mind to include everyone present:[80]
Blessed are You, Hashem our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with his commandments and has commanded us concerning the removal of chametz.
Hebrew:ברוך אתה י-הוה א-להינו מלך העולם אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על בעור חמץ,romanized: bāruḵ attā aḏonāy Elohēnu meleḵ hāʿolām ʾəšer qiddəšānu bəmiṣwāṯāw wəṣiwānu ʿal bəʿor ḥāmeṣ
The search is then usually conducted by the head of the household joined by his family including children under the supervision of their parents.
It is customary to turn off the lights and conduct the search bycandlelight, using a feather and a wooden spoon: candlelight effectively illuminates corners without casting shadows; the feather can dust crumbs out of their hiding places; and the wooden spoon which collects the crumbs can be burned the next day with the hametz. However, most contemporary Orthodox authorities permit using a flashlight, while some strongly encourage it due to the danger coupled with using a candle.
Because the house is assumed to have been thoroughly cleaned by the night before Passover, there is some concern that making a blessing over the search for hametz will be in vain (bracha l'vatala) if nothing is found. Thus, 10 morsels of bread or cereal smaller than the size of an olive are traditionally hidden throughout the house to ensure that some 'hametz will be found.
Upon conclusion of the search, with all the small pieces safely wrapped up and put in one bag or place, to be burned the next morning, the following is said:
Any chametz or leaven that is in my possession which I have not seen and have not removed and do not know about should be annulled and become ownerless like the dust of the earth.[80]
On the day preceding the first Passover seder (or on Thursday morning preceding the seder, when the first seder falls onMotza'ei Shabbat), firstborn sons are commanded to celebrate theFast of the Firstborn which commemorates the salvation of the Hebrew firstborns. According to Exodus 12:29, God struck down all Egyptian firstborns while the Israelites were not affected.[81] However, it is customary for synagogues to conduct asiyum (ceremony marking the completion of a section ofTorah learning) right aftermorning prayers, and thecelebratory meal that follows cancels the firstborn's obligation to fast.
Burning and nullification of leaven
On the morning of the 14th ofNisan, any leavened products that remain in the householder's possession, along with the 10 morsels of bread from the previous night's search, are burned (s'rayfat chametz). The head of the household repeats the declaration ofbiyur chametz, declaring anychametz that may not have been found to be null and void "as the dust of the earth":
Any chametz or leaven that is in my possession which I have not seen and have not removed and do not know about should be annulled and become ownerless like the dust of the earth.
The original declaration, as recited inAramaic, is:[80]
כל חמירא וחמיעא דאכא ברשותי דלא חמתה ודלא בערתה ודלא ידענא לה לבטל ולהוי הפקר כעפרא דארעא
Should morechametz actually be found in the house during the Passover holiday, it must be burnt as soon as possible.
Unlikechametz, which can be eaten any day of the year except during Passover, kosher for Passover foods can be eaten year-round. They need not be burnt or otherwise discarded after the holiday ends.
The historic Passover sacrifice has not been brought following the Romans'destruction of the Second Temple approximately two thousand years ago, and it is therefore still not part of the modern Jewish holiday.
In the times when the Jewish Temples stood, the lamb was slaughtered and cooked on the evening of Passover and was completely consumed before the morning as described in Exodus 12:3–11.[82]
Not eating matzah from sunrise until sunset (day before Passover)
Even matzot that are kosher for Passover cannot be eaten all day on during the daylight hours before Passover eve.[83] Some even practice this up to 30 days before.[84]
Due to the Torah injunction not to eatchametz (leaven) during Passover,[66] observant families typically own complete sets of serving dishes, glassware and silverware (and in some cases, even separate dishwashers and sinks) which have never come into contact withchametz, for use only during Passover. Under certain circumstances, somechametz utensils can be immersed in boiling water (hagalat keilim) to purge them of any traces ofchametz that may have accumulated during the year. ManySephardic families thoroughly wash their year-round glassware and then use it for Passover, as the Sephardic position is thatglass does not absorb enough traces of food to present a problem. Similarly, ovens may be used for Passover either by setting the self-cleaning function to the highest degree for a certain period, or by applying ablow torch to the interior until the oven glows red hot (a process calledlibun gamur).[85]
A symbol of the Passover holiday ismatzah, an unleavened flatbread made solely from flour and water which is continually worked from mixing through baking, so that it is not allowed to rise. Matzo may be made by machine or by hand. The Torah contains an instruction to eat matzah, specifically, on the first night of Passover and to eat only unleavened bread (in practice, matzah) during the entire week of Passover.[86] Consequently, the eating of matzah figures prominently in thePassover Seder. There are several explanations for this.
The Torah says that it is because the Hebrews left Egypt with such haste that there was no time to allow baked bread to rise; thus flat, unleavened bread, matzah, is a reminder of the rapid departure of the Exodus.[87] Other scholars teach that in the time of the Exodus, matzah was commonly baked to travel because it preserved well and was light to carry (making it similar tohardtack), suggesting that matzah was baked intentionally for the long journey ahead.
Matzo has also been calledLechem Oni (Hebrew: "bread of poverty"). There is an attendant explanation that matzah serves as a symbol to remind Jews what it is like to be a poor slave and to promote humility, appreciate freedom, and avoid the inflated ego symbolized by more luxurious leavened bread.[88]
Hand-madeshmura matzah
Shmura matzah ("watched" or "guarded" matzah), is the bread of preference for the Passover Seder in Orthodox Jewish communities. Shmura matzah is made from wheat that is guarded from contamination by leaven from the time of summer harvest[63] to its baking into matzot five to ten months later.
In the weeks before Passover, matzot are prepared for holiday consumption. In many Orthodox Jewish communities, men traditionallygather in groups to bake handmade matzah for use at the Seder, the dough being rolled by hand, resulting in a large and round matzah. Groups also work together in machine-made matzah factories, which produce the typically square-shaped matzah sold in stores.
The baking of matzah is labour-intensive,[63] as less than 18 minutes is permitted between the mixing of flour and water to the conclusion of baking and removal from the oven. Consequently, only a small number of matzot can be baked at one time, and the group members are enjoined to work the dough constantly so that it is not allowed to ferment and rise. A special cutting tool is run over the dough just before baking to prick any bubbles which might make the matza puff up;[89] this creates the familiar dotted holes in the matzah.
After the matzot come out of the oven, the entire work area is scrubbed down and swept to make sure that no pieces of old, potentially leavened dough remain, as any stray pieces are now hametz and can contaminate the next batch of matzah.
Some machine-made matzot are completed within five minutes of being kneaded.[63]
It is traditional for Jewish families to gather on the first night of Passover (first two nights inOrthodox andConservative communities outsideIsrael) for a special dinner called aseder (Hebrew:סדרseder – derived from theHebrew word for "order" or "arrangement", referring to the very specific order of the ritual). The table is set with the finest china and silverware to reflect the importance of the meal. During this meal, the story of the Exodus from Egypt is retold using a special text called theHaggadah. A total of four cups of wine are consumed during the recitation of the Haggadah. The seder is divided by the haggadah into the following 15 parts:
Qāḏēšקָדֵשׁ – recital of theKiddush and drinking of the first cup of wine
Hallelהלל – recital of the Hallel, traditionally recited on festivals; drinking of the fourth cup of wine
Nirṣāנירצה – conclusion
These 15 parts parallel the 15 steps in theTemple in Jerusalem on which theLevites stood during Temple services, and which were memorialized in the 15Psalms (#120–134) known asShir HaMa'a lot (Hebrew:שיר המעלותshiyr ha-ma'alôth, "Songs of Ascent").[90]
The seder is replete with questions, answers, and unusual practices (e.g. the recital ofKiddush which is not immediately followed by the blessing over bread, which is the traditional procedure for all other holiday meals) to arouse the interest and curiosity of the children at the table. The children are also rewarded with nuts and candies when they ask questions and participate in the discussion of the Exodus and its aftermath. Likewise, they are encouraged to search for theafikoman, the piece of matzah which is the last thing eaten at the seder. Audience participation and interaction is the rule, and many families' seders last long into the night with animated discussions and singing. The seder concludes with additional songs of praise and faith printed in the Haggadah, includingChad Gadya ("One Little Kid" or "One Little Goat").
Maror (bitter herbs) symbolizes the bitterness of slavery inEgypt. The following verse from theTorah underscores that symbolism: "And they embittered (Hebrew: וימררוve-yimareru) their lives with hard labor, with mortar and with bricks and with all manner of labor in the field; any labor that they made them do was with hard labor" (Exodus 1:14).
Silver seder plate
Four cups of wine
There is a Rabbinic requirement that four cups of wine are to be drunk during the seder meal. This applies to both men and women. The Mishnah says (Pes. 10:1) that even the poorest man in Israel must drink. Each cup is connected to a different part of the seder: the first cup is for Kiddush, the second cup is connected with the recounting ofthe Exodus, the drinking of the third cup concludesBirkat Hamazon and the fourth cup is associated with Hallel. A fifth cup of wine is poured near the end of the seder for the prophetElijah, a symbol of the future redemption, which is left un-touched.[91]
Children have a very important role in the Passover seder. Traditionally the youngest child is prompted to ask questions about the Passover seder, beginning with the words,Mah Nishtana HaLeila HaZeh (Why is this night different from all other nights?). The questions encourage the gathering to discuss the significance of the symbols in the meal. The questions asked by the child are:
Why is this night different from all other nights?
On all other nights, we eat either unleavened or leavened bread, but tonight we eat only unleavened bread?
On all other nights, we eat all kinds of vegetables, but tonight, we eat only bitter herbs?
On all other nights, we do not dip [our food] even once, but tonight we dip twice?
On all other nights, we eat either sitting or reclining, but tonight we only recline?
Often the leader of the seder and the other adults at the meal will use prompted responses from the Haggadah, which states, "The more one talks aboutthe Exodus from Egypt, the more praiseworthy he is." Many readings, prayers, and stories are used to recount the story of the Exodus. Many households add their own commentary and interpretation and often the story of the Jews is related to the theme of liberation and its implications worldwide.
Afikoman
14th century Haggadah
Theafikoman – an integral part of the Seder itself – is used to engage the interest and excitement of the children at the table. During the fourth part of the Seder, calledYachatz, the leader breaks the middle piece of matzah into two. He sets aside the larger portion as theafikoman. Many families use theafikoman as a device for keeping the children awake and alert throughout the Seder proceedings by hiding theafikoman and offering a prize for its return.[63] Alternatively, the children are allowed to "steal" theafikoman and demand a reward for its return. In either case, theafikoman must be consumed during the twelfth part of the Seder,Tzafun.
Concluding songs
After the Hallel, the fourth glass of wine is drunk, and participants recite a prayer that ends in "Next year in Jerusalem!". This is followed by several lyric prayers that expound upon God's mercy and kindness, and give thanks for the survival of the Jewish people through a history of exile and hardship. "Echad Mi Yodea" ("Who Knows One?") is a playful song, testing the general knowledge of the children (and the adults). Some of these songs, such as "Chad Gadya" are allegorical.
Hallel
During Passover, the recitation ofHallel a collection ofPsalms praising and thanking God, is an integral part of the daily prayer service. On the initial day(s) of Passover, it is recited in its entirety, similar to the practice observed onShavuot and throughoutSuccot. However, for the subsequent days of the Passover holiday, only half of the Hallel is recited. This traditional practice is widely observed by adherents of the Jewish faith as a way of expressing gratitude and celebrating the significance of Passover, while maintaining variations in the recitation of Hallel based on specific days within the festival.[92][93]
Beginning on the second night of Passover, the 16th day of Nisan,[94] Jews begin the practice of theCounting of the Omer, a nightly reminder of the approach of the holiday ofShavuot 50 days hence. Each night after theevening prayer service, men and women recite a special blessing and then enumerate the day of the Omer. On the first night, for example, they say, "Today is the first day in (or, to) the Omer"; on the second night, "Today is the second day in the Omer." The counting also involves weeks; thus, the seventh day is commemorated, "Today is the seventh day, which is one week in the Omer." The eighth day is marked, "Today is the eighth day, which is one week and one day in the Omer," etc.[95]
When theTemple stood in Jerusalem, a sheaf of new-cut barley was presented before the altar on the second day of Unleavened Bread (Passover).Josephus writes:
On the second day of unleavened bread, that is to say the sixteenth, our people partake of the crops which they have reaped and which have not been touched till then, and esteeming it right first to do homage to God, to whom they owe the abundance of these gifts, they offer to him the first-fruits of the barley in the following way. After parching and crushing the little sheaf of ears and purifying the barley for grinding, they bring to the altar anissaron for God, and, having flung a handful thereof on the altar, they leave the rest for the use of the priests. Thereafter all are permitted, publicly or individually, to begin harvest.[96]
Since the destruction of the Temple, this offering is brought in word rather than deed.
One explanation for the Counting of the Omer is that it shows the connection between Passover and Shavuot. The physical freedom that the Hebrews achieved at the Exodus from Egypt was only the beginning of a process that climaxed with the spiritual freedom they gained at the giving of the Torah atMount Sinai. Another explanation is that the newborn nation which emerged after the Exodus needed time to learn their new responsibilities vis-a-vis Torah andmitzvot before accepting God's law. The distinction between the Omer offering – a measure of barley, typically animal fodder – and the Shavuot offering – two loaves of wheat bread, human food – symbolizes the transition process.[97]
Chol HaMoed: The intermediate days of Passover
InIsrael, Passover lasts for seven days with the first and last days being majorJewish holidays. InOrthodox andConservative communities, no work is performed on those days, with most of the rules relating to the observances ofShabbat being applied.[98]
Outside Israel, inOrthodox andConservative communities, the holiday lasts for eight days with the first two days and last two days being major holidays. In the intermediate days necessary work can be performed.Reform Judaism observes Passover over seven days, with the first and last days being major holidays.
Like the holiday ofSukkot, the intermediary days of Passover are known asChol HaMoed (festival weekdays) and are imbued with a semi-festive status. It is a time for family outings and picnic lunches of matzah, hardboiled eggs, fruits and vegetables, and Passover treats such asmacaroons and homemade candies.[98]
Passover cake recipes call forpotato starch or Passover cake flour made from finely granulated matzah instead of regular flour, and a large amount of eggs to achieve fluffiness. Cookie recipes usematzah farfel (broken bits of matzah) or ground nuts as the base. For families withEastern European backgrounds,borsht, a soup made withbeets, is a Passover tradition.[99]
While kosher for Passover packaged goods are available in stores, some families opt to cook everything from scratch during Passover week. InIsrael, families that do notkasher their ovens can bake cakes, casseroles, and even meat[100] on thestovetop in aWonder Pot, an Israeli invention consisting of three parts: analuminium pot shaped like aBundt pan, a hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a center hole which is placed between the Wonder Pot and the flame to disperse heat.[101]
Seventh day of Passover
Shvi'i shel Pesach (שביעי של פסח, 'seventh [day] of Passover') is another fullJewish holiday, with special prayer services and festive meals. Outside theIsrael, in theJewish diaspora,Shvi'i shel Pesach is celebrated on both the seventh and eighth days of Passover.[102] This holiday commemorates the day theChildren of Israel reached theRed Sea and witnessed both the miraculous "Splitting of the Sea" (Passage of the Red Sea), the drowning of all the Egyptian chariots, horses and soldiers that pursued them. According to theMidrash, only thePharaoh was spared to give testimony to the miracle that occurred.
HasidicRebbes traditionally hold atish on the night ofShvi'i shel Pesach and place a cup or bowl of water on the table before them. They use this opportunity to speak about the Splitting of the Sea to their disciples, and sing songs of praise to God.[103]
Second Passover
The "Second Passover" (Pesach Sheni) on the 14th of Iyar in theHebrew calendar is mentioned in theHebrew Bible'sBook of Numbers[104] as a make-up day for people who were unable to offer the pesach sacrifice at the appropriate time due toritual impurity or distance fromJerusalem. Just as on the first Pesach night, breaking bones from the second Paschal offering or leaving meat over until morning is prohibited.[105][106]
Today, Pesach Sheni on the 14th of Iyar has the status of a very minor holiday (so much so that many of the Jewish people have never even heard of it, and it essentially does not exist outside ofOrthodox and traditionalConservative Judaism). There are not really any special prayers or observances that are considered Jewish law. The only change in the liturgy is that in some communitiesTachanun, a penitential prayer omitted on holidays, is not said. There is a custom, though not Jewish law, to eat just one piece of matzah on that night.[107]
Issac askingEsau to prepare a meal for him so he can bless him.[110]
Jacob wrestles with an angel and his name is changed to Israel. Genesis 32:25–29[109]
Moses at the burning bush. One year before the exodus, God speaks to Moses from the burning bush to go and deliver Israel.[109]
The Exodus. The children of Israel were protected by the blood of the lamb during the plague of the death of the firstborn. They were miraculously healed that night and walked out of Egypt in the morning. God gave them favour with their neighbors and they asked and received precious articles which was used to build the tabernacle.[109]
Queen Vashti is executed by King Achashverosh paving the way for Esther to become queen.[109]
Esther's fast was proclaimed during the Passover.Haman erected the gallows forMordecai on the first night of the Passover. The same night, KingAhasuerus could not sleep and that resulted in the downfall of Haman.[112]
KingBelshazzar of Babylon made use of the vessels of the temple and was subsequently judged by the handwriting on the wall.[112]
AD
AD 30, Jesus instituted the Last Supper in Jerusalem and died on the cross initiating an exodus from slavery to sin to freedom for all mankind.[114]
1979 – Uganda – Judaism was banned byIdi Amin in 1971. On Wednesday, 11 April 1979, corresponding to 14 Nisan 5739, Passover Night the new Government, composed ofUgandan rebels and Tanzanian troops, declared freedom of worship. And Passover was commemorated.[115]
Traditional foods
Matzah brei (fried matzah and egg), a popular Passover dish
Because the house is free of leaven (chametz) for eight days, the Jewish household typically eats different foods during the week of Passover. Some include:
Ashkenazi foods
Matzah brei –Matzo softened in milk or water and fried with egg and fat; served either savory or sweet
Matzokugel – A kugel made with matzah instead of noodles
Charoset – A sweet mixture of fruit, fresh, dried or both; nuts; spices; honey; and sometimes wine. The charoset is a symbol of the mortar the Israelites used for building while enslaved in Egypt (SeePassover seder)
Passover noodles – Noodles prepared from potato flour and eggs, served in soup. Batter is fried like thin crepes, which are stacked, rolled up and sliced into ribbons.[116]
Sephardi foods
Kafteikas di prasa – Fried balls made of leeks, meat, and matzah meal
Lamb orchicken leg – A symbol of God's strong hand and the sacrifice
Mina (pastel di pesach) – a meat or spinach pie made with matzot
Related celebrations, sermons, liturgy, and song in other religions
That slaves can go free, and that the future can be better than the present, has inspired a number of religious sermons, prayers, and songs – includingspirituals (what used to be called "Negro Spirituals"), within the African-American community.Philip R. Alstat, known for his fiery rhetoric and powerful oratory skills,wrote and spoke in 1939 about the power of the Passover story during the rise of Nazi persecution and terror:[117]
Saint Thomas Syrian Christians observeMaundy Thursday asPesaha, a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic or Hebrew word for Passover (Pasha, Pesach or Pesah) The tradition of consumingPesaha Appam after the church service is observed by the entire community under the leadership of the head of the family.[118][119]
Christianity celebratesEaster (not to be confused with the pre-Christian Saxon festival from which it derives its English name).[123][124][125] The coincidence of Jesus' crucifixion with the Jewish Passover led some early Christians to make afalse etymological association between HebrewPesach and Greekpascho ("suffer").[126][127][128] BecauseEaster's date in the calendar is related to lunar phases, Easter often falls on the same week as Passover but this is not necessarily the case; for example, the first full moon after the equinox might happen during the month ofAdar.
The 2014-publishedThe Legislative Themes of Centralization: From Mandate to Demise ties Passover toapotropaic rite, unrelated tothe Exodus.[131][132][133]
Environmental links
Some see in Passover an important ecological lesson important to the contemporary situation with different ecological threats likeclimate change. For example, RabbiYonatan Neril, founder and executive director of theInterfaith Center for Sustainable Development, compares the impact of climate change to thePlagues of Egypt and the refusal of modern society to change its way of thinking to the refusal of thePharaoh to free the Jewish slaves.[134] Scientists discovered evidence for climatic change at the end of the rule ofRamesses II, which could potentially impact the flow of the Nile, leading tored algae bloom. This could explain what is described as the ten plagues. According to Neril: "The Egyptians were very happy to have a free source of labor in the form of Israelite slaves. When God said this needs to stop, they were reluctant to change…Fossil fuels, in the past 150 years, have replaced slave labor as the key driver of human society. There's a Pharaoh within us that wants to continue to do something that's not right."[135][136]
^James B. Prichard, ed., The Ancient Near East – An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Volume 1, Princeton University Press, 1958, p. 278.
^"On the feast called Passover...they sacrifice from the ninth to the eleventh hour", Josephus,Jewish War 6.423–428, inJosephus III, The Jewish War, Book IV–VII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1979. Philo in one place (Special Laws 2.148) states that the victims are sacrificed "from noon till eventide", and in another place (Questions on Exodus 1.11) that the sacrifices begin at the ninth hour. According to Jubilees 49.12, "it is not fitting to sacrifice [the Passover] during any time of light except during the time of the border of evening."
^"And what is left of its flesh from the third of the night and beyond, they shall burn with fire,"Jubilees 49.12. "We celebrate [the Passover] by fraternities, nothing of the sacrificial victims being kept for the morrow," Josephus,Antiquities 3.248.
^"The guests assembled for the banquet have been cleansed by purificatory lustrations, and are there...to fulfill with prayers and hymns the custom handed down by their fathers." Philo, Special Laws 2.148, inPhilo VII: On the Decalog; On the Special Laws I–III, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1937.
^The barley had to be "eared out" (ripe) in order to have a wave-sheaf offering of the first fruits according to the Law.Jones, Stephen (1996).Secrets of Time. This also presupposes that the cycle is based on the northern hemisphere seasons.
^"..., when the fruit had not grown properly, when the winter rains had not stopped, when the roads for Passover pilgrims had not dried up, and when the young pigeons had not become fledged. The council on intercalation considered the astronomical facts together with the religious requirements of Passover and the natural conditions of the country." –Spier, Arthur (1952).The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar. New York: Behrman House, Inc., p. 1
^"In the fourth century, ... the patriarchHillel II ... made public the system of calendar calculation which up to then had been a closely guarded secret. It had been used in the past only to check the observations and testimonies of witnesses, and to determine the beginning of the spring season." – Spier 1952, p. 2
^Shapiro, Mark Dov."How Long is Passover?".sinai-temple.org. Sinai Temple.Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. RetrievedApril 9, 2015.
^Dreyfus, Ben."Is Passover 7 or 8 Days?".ReformJudaism.org. Union for Reform Judaism.Archived from the original on April 8, 2015. RetrievedApril 9, 2015.
^"What Is Passover?". Rabbinical College of Australia and N.Z. Archived fromthe original on August 5, 2012. RetrievedMarch 17, 2012.
^Stern, Sacha (2001).Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar 2nd Century BCE – 10th Century CE. Oxford University Press. p. viii.ISBN0198270348.
^Jacobs, Louis; Rose, Michael (March 23, 1983)."The Laws of Pesach".Friends of Louis Jacobs.Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. RetrievedApril 10, 2017.
^Ross, Philip S."Anthems for a Dying Lamb".Christian Focus. pp. 5–10.Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. RetrievedSeptember 20, 2018.
^Karaite Jews begin the count on the Sunday within the holiday week. This leads to Shavuot for the Karaites always falling on a Sunday.
^Scharfstein, Sol (1999).Understanding Jewish Holidays and Customs: Historical and Contemporary. Ktav Publishing House. pp. 36–37.ISBN0881256269.
^Josephus, Antiquities 3.250–251, in Josephus IV Jewish Antiquities Books I–IV, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1930, pp. 437–439.
^Cohn, Ellen (2000)."In Search of the Omer". In Bernstein, Ellen (ed.).Ecology and the Jewish Spirit: Where Nature and the Sacred Meet. Jewish Lights. p. 164.ISBN1580230822.Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. RetrievedApril 10, 2017.
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on February 6, 2020. RetrievedApril 16, 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Weil, S. (1982) "Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala". inContributions to Indian Sociology, 16.
^Karl Gerlach (1998).The Antenicene Pascha: A Rhetorical History. Peeters Publishers. p. 21.ISBN978-9042905702.Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. RetrievedOctober 19, 2020.Long before this controversy, Ex 12 as a story of origins and its ritual expression had been firmly fixed in the Christian imagination.. Ex 12 is thus one of the few reliable guides for tracing the synergism among ritual, text, and kerygma before the Council of Nicaea.
^Matthias Reinhard Hoffmann (2005).The Destroyer and the Lamb: The Relationship Between Angelomorphic and Lamb Christology in the Book of Revelation. Mohr Siebeck. p. 117.ISBN3-16-148778-8.Archived from the original on January 8, 2021. RetrievedOctober 19, 2020.1.2.2.Christ as the Passover Lamb from Exodus A number of features throughout Revelation seem to correspond to Exodus 12: The connection of Lamb and Passover, a salvific effect of the Lamb's blood and the punishment of God's (and His people's) opponents from Exodus 12 may possibly be reflected within the settings of the Apocalypse. The concept of Christ as a Passover lamb is generally not unknown in NT or early Christian literature, as can for instance be seen in 1 Corinthians 5:7, 1 Peter 1:19 or Justin Martyr's writing (Dial. 111:3). In the Gospel of John, especially, this connection between Christ and Passover is made very explicit.
^Reece, Steve, "Passover as 'Passion': A Folk Etymology in Luke 22:15", Biblica (Peeters Publishers, Leuven, Belgium) 100 (2019) 601–610.
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