Acar, or anautomobile, is amotor vehicle withwheels. Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily onroads,seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transportpeople rather thancargo.[1][2] There are around one billion cars in use worldwide.
The French inventorNicolas-Joseph Cugnot built the first steam-powered road vehicle in 1769, while the Swiss inventorFrançois Isaac de Rivaz designed and constructed the first internal combustion-powered automobile in 1808. The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in 1886, when the German inventorCarl Benz patented hisBenz Patent-Motorwagen. Commercial cars became widely available during the 20th century. The 1901Oldsmobile Curved Dash and the 1908Ford Model T, both American cars, are widely considered the first mass-produced[3][4] and mass-affordable[5][6][7] cars, respectively. Cars were rapidly adopted in the US, where they replacedhorse-drawn carriages.[8] In Europe and other parts of the world, demand for automobiles did not increase untilafter World War II.[9] In the 21st century, car usage is still increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, and othernewly industrialised countries.[10][11]
"Motor car", attested from 1895, is the usual formal term inBritish English.[2] "Autocar", a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning "self-propelled car", is now considered archaic.[24] "Horseless carriage" is attested from 1895.[25]
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle.[36] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in theFrench National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.[36] His inventions were limited by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure.[36] In 1801,Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated hisPuffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use.
The development of external combustion (steam) engines is detailed as part of the history of the car but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, includingsteam cars,steam buses,phaetons, andsteam rollers. In the United Kingdom, sentiment against them led to theLocomotive Acts of 1865.
In 1807,Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's firstinternal combustion engine (which they called aPyréolophore), but installed it in a boat on the riverSaone in France.[37] Coincidentally, in 1807, the Swiss inventorFrançois Isaac de Rivaz designed his own "de Rivaz internal combustion engine", and used it to develop the world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture ofLycopodium powder (dried spores of theLycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture ofhydrogen andoxygen.[37] Neither design was successful, as was the case with others, such asSamuel Brown,Samuel Morey, andEtienne Lenoir,[38] who each built vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines.[39]
In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His firstMotorwagen was built in 1885 inMannheim, Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under the auspices of his major company,Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a cheaper model. They also were powered withfour-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888,Bertha Benz, the wife and business partner of Carl Benz, undertook the firstroad trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention.[43]
In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustionflat engine, calledboxermotor. During the last years of the 19th century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became ajoint-stock company. The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed toTatra) in 1897, thePräsident automobil.
Daimler and Maybach foundedDaimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) inCannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under the brand nameDaimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895, about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach, and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine namedDaimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set byEmil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to theDaimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.
In 1890,Émile Levassor andArmand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of theautomotive industry in France. In 1891,Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed the longest trip by a petrol-driven vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler poweredPeugeot Type 3 completed 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) fromValentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the firstParis–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished six days after the winning cyclist,Charles Terront.
The first design for an American car with a petrol internal combustion engine was made in 1877 byGeorge Selden ofRochester, New York. Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of 16 years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a US patent (U.S. patent 549,160) for atwo-stroke car engine,which hindered, more than encouraged, development of cars in the United States. His patent was challenged byHenry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.
In 1893, the first running, petrol-drivenAmerican car was built and road-tested by theDuryea brothers ofSpringfield, Massachusetts. The first public run of theDuryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street inMetro Center Springfield.[44][45]Studebaker, subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897[46]: 66 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and petrol vehicles in 1904.[47]
In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, withThomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[48]Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-driven car in the country in 1894,[49] followed byFrederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs.[49] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from theDaimler Company, a company founded byHarry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.[49]
In 1892, German engineerRudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the firstdiesel engine.[39] Steam-, electric-, and petrol-driven vehicles competed for a few decades, with petrol internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although variouspistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventionalpiston andcrankshaft design, onlyMazda's version of theWankel engine has had more than very limited success. All in all, it is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile and motorcycle.[50]
As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in 15-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5 manhours to 1 hour 33 minutes).[52] It was so successful,paint became a bottleneck. OnlyJapan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1913, until fast-dryingDucolacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford'sapocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[52] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[52]
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury.[53] The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism" and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the US. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921,Citroën was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going bankrupt; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[52]
Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electricignition and the electric self-starter (both byCharles Kettering, for theCadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independentsuspension, and four-wheel brakes.
Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It wasAlfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called theGeneral Motors Companion Make Program, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.
Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s,LaSalles, sold byCadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made byOldsmobile; in the 1950s,Chevrolet shared bonnet, doors, roof, and windows withPontiac; by the 1990s, corporatepowertrains and sharedplatforms (with interchangeablebrakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such asApperson,Cole,Dorris,Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with theGreat Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[52]
In Europe, much the same would happen.Morris set up its production line atCowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice ofvertical integration, buyingHotchkiss' British subsidiary (engines),Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such asWolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41 per cent of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, fromAbbey toXtra, had gone under. Citroën did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such asRenault's 10CV andPeugeot's5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, andMors,Hurtu, and others could not compete.[52] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, theOpel 4PSLaubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line atRüsselsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per cent of the market.[52]
In Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companies were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and these were small, three-wheeled for commercial uses, likeDaihatsu, or were the result of partnering with European companies, likeIsuzu building theWolseley A-9 in 1922.Mitsubishi was also partnered withFiat and built theMitsubishi Model A based on a Fiat vehicle.Toyota,Nissan,Suzuki,Mazda, andHonda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to takeToyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually becomeToyota Motor Corporation, the largest automobile manufacturer in the world.Subaru, meanwhile, was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together asFuji Heavy Industries, as a result of having been broken up underkeiretsu legislation.
Most cars in use in the early 2020s run onpetrol burnt in aninternal combustion engine (ICE). Some cities ban older more polluting petrol-driven cars and some countries plan to ban sales in future. However, some environmental groups say thisphase-out of fossil fuel vehicles must be brought forwards to limit climate change. Production of petrol-fuelled cars peaked in 2017.[55][56]
In almost all hybrid (evenmild hybrid) and pure electric carsregenerative braking recovers and returns to a battery some energy which would otherwise be wasted by friction brakes getting hot.[60] Although all cars must have friction brakes (frontdisc brakes and either disc ordrum rear brakes[61]) for emergency stops, regenerative braking improves efficiency, particularly in city driving.[62]
In theFord Model T the left-side hand lever sets the rear wheel parking brakes and puts the transmission in neutral. The lever to the right controls the throttle. The lever on the left of the steering column is for ignition timing. The left foot pedal changes the two forward gears while the centre pedal controls reverse. The right pedal is the brake.
Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars. These controls include asteering wheel, pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as the location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, theelectric car and the integration of mobile communications.
Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch,ignition timing, and a crank instead of an electricstarter. However, new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These includeair conditioning,navigation systems, andin-car entertainment. Another trend is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such asBMW'siDrive andFord'sMyFord Touch. Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early 2020s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls.
Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, anentertainment system which originated fromcar radios, sidewayswindows which can be lowered or raised electrically (manually on earlier cars), and one or multipleauxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such asmobile phones, portable fridges,power inverters, and electrical air pumps from the on-board electrical system.[63][64][a] More costly upper-class andluxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats andcollision avoidance systems.[65][66]
Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These includeheadlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions,daytime running lights; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase the visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light.
During the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries,[68] modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and "more-powerful—if more efficient—engines"[69] and, as of 2019[update], typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes (1.1 and 3.3 short tons; 0.98 and 2.95 long tons).[70] Heavier cars are safer for the driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users.[69] The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. TheWuling Hongguang Mini EV, a typicalcity car, weighs about 700 kilograms (1,500 lb). Heavier cars include SUVs and extended-length SUVs like theSuburban. Cars have also become wider.[71]
Some places tax heavier cars more:[72] as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycledaluminium instead of steel.[73] It has been suggested that one benefit of subsidisingcharging infrastructure is that cars can use lighter batteries.[74]
Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear.Full-size cars and largesport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. On the other hand,sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. Utility vehicles likepickup trucks, combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in the availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, thesedan/saloon,hatchback,station wagon/estate,coupe, andminivan.
Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.[17]Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 inParsonstown, Ireland,[75] andHenry Bliss one of the US's first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City.[76] There are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as theEuro andUS NCAP tests,[77] and insurance-industry-backed tests by theInsurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).[78] However, not all such tests consider the safety of people outside the car, such as drivers of other cars, pedestrians and cyclists.[79]
The costs of car usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs andauto maintenance, fuel,depreciation, driving time,parking fees, taxes, and insurance,[16] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits—perceived and real—of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience,[18] andemergency power.[81] During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: "[c]ouples finally had a way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night."[82]
Similarly the costs to society of car use may include;maintaining roads,land use,air pollution,noise pollution,road congestion,public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life; and can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. Societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from thetax opportunities. The ability of humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies.[19]
Trucks' share of US vehicles produced, has tripled since 1975. Though vehicle fuel efficiency has increased within each category, the overall trend toward less efficient types of vehicles has offset some of the benefits of greater fuel economy and reductions in pollution and carbon dioxide emissions.[83] Without the shift towards SUVs, energy use per unit distance could have fallen 30% more than it did from 2010 to 2022.[84]Car exhaust gas is one type of pollution
Car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts: it causes localair pollutionplastic pollution and contributes togreenhouse gas emissions andclimate change.[85] Cars and vans caused 10% of energy-relatedcarbon dioxide emissions in 2022.[86] As of 2023[update],electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. This is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity fromlow-carbon sources.[87] Cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019.[55] Cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are lesswalkable for instance.[85] A growing demand for large SUVs is driving up emissions from cars.[88]
Cars are a major cause ofair pollution,[89] which stems fromexhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and fromdust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. Electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, but are generally heavier and therefore produce slightly moreparticulate matter.[90]Heavy metals and microplastics (from tyres) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. Mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both causewater pollution.[85]
Animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars viahabitat destruction andfragmentation from the road network and pollution. Animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to asroadkill.[85] More recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges (designed to allowwildlife crossings) and creatingwildlife corridors.
Governments use fiscal policies, such asroad tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars;[91]Vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars.[92] Many countriesplan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050.[93] Various cities have implementedlow-emission zones, banning old fossil fuel andAmsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely.[94][95] Some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such ascycling.[94] Many Chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars,[96]
Social issues
Mass production of personal motor vehicles in the United States and other developed countries with extensive territories such as Australia, Argentina, and France vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas.[citation needed] Growth in the popularity of cars andcommuting has led totraffic congestion.[97]Moscow,Istanbul,Bogotá,Mexico City andSão Paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to INRIX, a data analytics company.[98]
Air pollution from cars increases the risk oflung cancer andheart disease. It can also harm pregnancies: more children areborn too early or with lowerbirth weight.[85] Children are extra vulnerable to air pollution, as their bodies are still developing and air pollution in children is linked to the development ofasthma,childhood cancer, and neurocognitive issues such asautism.[102][85] The growth in popularity of the car allowed cities tosprawl, therefore encouraging more travel by car, resulting in inactivity andobesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[103] When places are designed around cars, children have fewer opportunities to go places by themselves, and lose opportunities to become more independent.[104][85]
Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as driverless cars, already exist asrobotaxis[115][116] but have a long way to go before they are in general use.[117]
Car sharing
Car-share arrangements andcarpooling are also increasingly popular, in the US and Europe.[118] For example, in the US, some car-sharing services have experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007. Services like car sharing offer residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighbourhoods.[119]
The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world'smotor vehicles, more than three-quarters of which are cars. In 2020, there were 56 million cars manufactured worldwide,[120] down from 67 million the previous year.[121] Theautomotive industry in China produces by far the most (20 million in 2020), followed by Japan (seven million), then Germany, South Korea and India.[122] The largest market is China, followed by the US.
Around the world, there are about a billion cars on the road;[123] they burn over a trillion litres (0.26×10^12 US gal; 0.22×10^12 imp gal) of petrol and diesel fuel yearly, consuming about 50exajoules (14,000 TWh) of energy.[124] The numbers of cars are increasing rapidly in China and India.[125] In the opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investment. Many of these negative effects fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[126][127] Thesustainable transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems. The car industry is also facing increasing competition from the public transport sector, as some people re-evaluate their private vehicle usage. In July 2021, theEuropean Commission introduced the "Fit for 55" legislation package, outlining crucial directives for the automotive sector's future.[128][129] According to this package, by 2035, all newly sold cars in the European market must beZero-emissions vehicles.[130][131][132]
Established alternatives for some aspects of car use includepublic transport such as busses,trolleybusses, trains,subways,tramways,light rail, cycling, andwalking.Bicycle sharing systems have been established in China and many European cities, includingCopenhagen andAmsterdam. Similar programmes have been developed in large US cities.[133][134] Additional individual modes of transport, such aspersonal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to cars if they prove to be socially accepted.[135] A study which checked the costs and the benefits of introducingLow Traffic Neighbourhood inLondon found the benefits overpass the costs approximately by 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time.[136]
^"Prospective Arrangements".The Times. 4 December 1897. p. 13.
^"automobile, adj. and n."OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2014.Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved29 September 2014.
^"USAG Stuttgart".Military One Source. US. 17 August 2023. Retrieved22 November 2023.
^Barker, Theo (1987).The Economic and Social Effects of the Spread of Motor Vehicles: An International Centenary Tribute (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 55.ISBN978-1349086269.
^ab"A brief note on Ferdinand Verbiest". Curious Expeditions. 2 July 2007. Archived fromthe original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved18 April 2008. – The vehicle pictured is the 20th century diecast model made by Brumm, of a later vehicle, not a model based on Verbiest's plans.
^Hendrickson, Kenneth E., ed. (2014).The encyclopedia of the industrial revolution in world history. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.ISBN978-0-8108-8888-3.OCLC913956423.
^"Are Electric Vehicles Safe?".www.recurrentauto.com. Retrieved22 January 2024.EVs are mostly all built like a skateboard, with the battery pack on the bottom of the car. This gives them amazing cornering and handling, and makes them very hard to flip.
^Andrew Ross; Julie Livingston (15 December 2022)."Once You See the Truth About Cars, You Can't Unsee It".The New York Times. No. New York Times.Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved16 December 2022.Andrew Ross and Julie Livingston are New York University professors, members of NYU's Prison Education Program Research Lab and authors of the book "Cars and Jails: Freedom Dreams, Debt, and Carcerality."
^Brumberg, Heather L.; Karr, Catherine J.; Bole, Aparna; Ahdoot, Samantha; Balk, Sophie J.; Bernstein, Aaron S.; Byron, Lori G.; Landrigan, Philip J.; Marcus, Steven M.; Nerlinger, Abby L.; Pacheco, Susan E.; Woolf, Alan D.; Zajac, Lauren; Baum, Carl R.; Campbell, Carla C. (1 June 2021)."Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children".Pediatrics.147 (6): e2021051484.doi:10.1542/peds.2021-051484.ISSN0031-4005.
Sachs, Wolfgang (1992).For love of the automobile: looking back into the history of our desires. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0-520-06878-5.
Wilkins, Mira; Hill, Frank Ernest (1964).American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents.
Latin America: Economic Growth Trends. US: Agency for International Development, Office of Statistics and Reports. 1972. p. 11. – Number of motor vehicles registered in Latin America in 1970
World Motor Vehicle Production and Registration. US: Business and Defense Services Administration, Transportation Equipment Division. p. 3. – Number of registered passenger cars in various countries in 1959-60 and 1969–70
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