Parliament of Canada Parlement du Canada | |
|---|---|
| 45th Parliament | |
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| Type | |
| Type | |
| Houses | |
| History | |
| Founded | 1 July 1867 (1867-07-01) |
| Preceded by | Initially assumed somejurisdiction from: Later added some jurisdiction from: |
| Leadership | |
Charles III since 8 September 2022 | |
Mary Simon since 26 July 2021 | |
| Structure | |
| Seats |
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Senate political groups |
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House of Commons political groups | His Majesty's Government
His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition
Parties without official status
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| Elections | |
| Appointment by thegovernor general onadvice of theprime minister | |
| First-past-the-post | |
LastHouse of Commons election | 28 April 2025 |
| Meeting place | |
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| Website | |
| parl | |
TheParliament of Canada (French:Parlement du Canada) is thefederal legislature ofCanada. TheCrown, along with two chambers: theSenate and theHouse of Commons, form thebicameral legislature.
The 343 members of thelower house, the House of Commons, are styled asMembers of Parliament (MPs), and each elected to represent anelectoral district (also known as a riding). The 105 members of theupper house, the Senate, are styledsenators and appointed by thegovernor general on the advice of theprime minister. Collectively, MPs and senators are known asparliamentarians.
Bills may originate in either the House of Commons or the Senate, however, bills involving raising or spending funds must originate in the House of Commons. Byconstitutional convention, and following theWestminster system of government, the House of Commons is dominant, with the Senate rarely opposing its will. The Crown providesroyal assent to make bills into law. The federal fiscal year runs from April 1 to March 31.[1]
The governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, summons and calls together the House of Commons, and mayprorogue ordissolve Parliament, in order to either end aparliamentary session orcall a general election. The governor general also delivers thethrone speech at the opening of each new Parliament (the monarch occasionally has done so instead of the governor general).
The election for the45th Canadian Parliament was held on 28 April 2025, resulting in a Liberal minority government.
The body consists of theKing of Canada, represented by aviceroy, thegovernor general; anupper house, theSenate; and alower house, theHouse of Commons. Each element has its own officers and organization. Each has a distinct role, but work in conjunction within thelegislative process. This format was inherited from theUnited Kingdom and is a near-identical copy of theParliament at Westminster, the greatest differences stemming from situations unique to Canada, such as the impermanent nature of the monarch's residency in the country and the lack of apeerage to form the upper chamber.
Only those who sit in the House of Commons are usually calledmembers of Parliament (MPs); the term is not usually applied to senators (except in legislation, such as theParliament of Canada Act), even though the Senate is a part of Parliament. Though legislatively less powerful, senators take higher positions in thenational order of precedence. No individual may serve in more than one chamber at the same time.
The sovereign's place in the legislature, formally known as theKing-in-Parliament,[2] is defined by theConstitution Act, 1867, and variousconventions.[3] Neither he nor his viceroy, however, participates in the legislative process save for signifying the King's approval to a bill passed by both houses of Parliament, known asroyal assent, which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law. All federal bills thus begin with the phrase "Now, therefore, His Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada, enacts as follows ..."[4] and, as such,the Crown is immune from acts of Parliament unless expressed otherwise in the act itself.[5] The governor general normally grants royal assent, though the monarch may also do so, at the request of either theCabinet or the viceroy, who may defer assent to the sovereign as per the constitution.[6]
As both the monarch and his or her representatives are traditionally barred from the House of Commons (becauseCharles I tried to personally arrestfive members in the English Commons chamber in 1642), any parliamentary ceremonies in which they are involved take place in the Senate chamber. The upper and lower houses do, however, each contain amace, which indicates the authority of the King-in-Parliament and the privilege granted to that body by him,[7][8] both bearing a crown at their apex. The original mace for the Senate was that used in theLegislative Council of the Province of Canada after 1849, while that of the House of Commons was inherited from theLegislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, first used in 1845. Following theburning of the Centre Block on 3 February 1916, theCity of London, England, donated a replacement, which is still used today. The temporary mace, made of wood, and used until the new one arrived from the United Kingdom in 1917, is still carried into the Senate each 3 February.[9] The Senate's 1.6-metre-long mace comprises brass and gold. The Senate may not sit if its mace is not in the chamber; it typically sits on the table with the crown facing the throne,[10]: 55 though it may, during certain ceremonies, be held by the mace bearer, standing adjacent to the governor general or monarch in the Senate.[10]: 51
Members of the two houses of Parliament must also express their loyalty to the sovereign and defer to his authority, as theOath of Allegiance must be sworn by all new parliamentarians before they may take their seats. Further, theofficial opposition is formally calledHis Majesty's Loyal Opposition, to signify that, though they may be opposed to the incumbent Cabinet's policies, they remain dedicated to the apolitical Crown.[11][12]
Theupper house of the Parliament of Canada, the Senate (French:Sénat), is a group of 105 individuals appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister;[13] all those appointed must, per the constitution, be a minimum of 30 years old, be a subject of the monarch, and own property with a net worth of at least $4,000, in addition to owning land worth no less than $4,000 within the province the candidate seeks to represent.[14] Senators served for life until 1965, when a constitutional amendment imposed a mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators may, however, resign their seats prior to that mark, and can lose their position should they fail to attend two consecutive sessions of Parliament.
The principle underlying the Senate's composition is equality amongst Canada's geographic regions (called Divisions in the Constitution): 24 forOntario, 24 forQuebec, 24 for theMaritimes (10 forNova Scotia, 10 forNew Brunswick, and four forPrince Edward Island), and 24 for theWestern provinces (six each forManitoba,British Columbia,Saskatchewan, andAlberta).[15] Additionally, senators are appointed from two geographic areas not part of any senatorial division.Newfoundland and Labrador (since 1949 the "newest" province, although"oldest" English settlement), is represented by six senators. Since 1975 each of Canada's territories is represented by 1 senator—theNorthwest Territories,Yukon, and (since its formation in 1999)Nunavut. An additional 4 or 8 senators may be appointed by the governor general, provided the approval of the King is secured and the four divisions are equally represented. This power has been employed once since 1867: to ensure the passage of the bill establishing theGoods and Services Tax, Prime MinisterBrian Mulroney advised Queen Elizabeth II to appoint extra senators in 1990. This results in a temporary maximum number of senators of 113, which must through attrition return to its normal number of 105.
The elected component of the Canadian Parliament is the House of Commons (French:Chambre des communes), with each member chosen by a plurality of voters in each of the country's federalelectoral districts, or ridings. To run for one of the 343[16] seats in the House of Commons, an individual must be a Canadian citizen and at least 18 years old. Each member holds office until Parliament is dissolved, after which they may seek re-election. The ridings are regularly reorganized according to the results of each decennial nationalcensus;[17] however, the "senatorial clause" of theConstitution Act, 1867 guarantees each province at least as many MPs as it has senators,[18] and the "grandfather clause" permits each province as many MPs as it had in either 1976 or 1985.[17] The existence of this legislation has pushed the size of the House of Commons above the required minimum of 282 seats.
The powers of the Parliament of Canada are limited by the constitution, which divides legislative abilities between the federal andprovincial legislatures; in general, provinciallegislatures may only pass laws relating to topics explicitly reserved for them by the constitution (such as education, provincial officers, municipal government, charitable institutions, and "matters of a merely local or private nature")[19] while any matter not under the exclusive authority of the provincial legislatures is within the scope of the federal Parliament's power. Thus, Parliament alone can pass laws relating to, among other things, the postal service, census,military, navigation and shipping, fishing, currency, banking, weights and measures, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents,First Nations, andnaturalization.[20] In some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, but the solemnization of marriage is regulated only by the provincial legislatures. Other examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture.
The powers of Parliament are also limited by theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, though most of its provisions can be overridden by use of thenotwithstanding clause.[21] Such clause, however, has never been used by the federal parliament, though it has been employed by some provincial legislatures. Laws violating any part of the constitution are invalid and may be ruled unconstitutional bythe courts.
Each of Parliament's two chambers is presided over by aspeaker; that for the Senate is a member appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister, while theequivalent for the House of Commons is a member of Parliament, who is elected by the other members of that body. In general, the powers of the latter are greater than those of the former. Following the British model, the upper chamber is essentially self-regulating, but the lower chamber is controlled by the chair, in a majoritarian model that gives great power and authority to the chair. In 1991, however, the powers of thespeaker of the Senate were expanded, which reorganized the balance of power to be closer to the framework of the Commons.[citation needed]
Theusher of the black rod of the Senate of Canada is the most senior protocol position in Parliament, being the personal messenger to the legislature of the sovereign and governor general. The usher is also a floor officer of the Senate responsible for security in that chamber, as well as for protocol, administrative, and logistical details of important events taking place on Parliament Hill,[22] such as theSpeech from the Throne, Royal Assent ceremonies,state funerals, or the investiture of a new governor general.[23]
Other officers of Parliament include theauditor general,chief electoral officer,official languages commissioner,privacy commissioner,information commissioner,conflict of interest and ethics commissioner,public sector integrity commissioner, andcommissioner of lobbying. These individuals are appointed by either one or both houses, to which they report through the speaker of that house. They are sometimes referred to asAgents of Parliament.[24] Another key official is theparliamentary librarian, a position established in 1871 under theLibrary of Parliament Act, charged with directing theLibrary of Parliament.
TheConstitution Act, 1867, outlines that the governor general alone is responsible for summoning Parliament, though it remains the monarch'sprerogative toprorogue anddissolve the legislature, after which thewrits for ageneral federal election are usuallydropped by the governor general atRideau Hall. Upon completion of the election, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, then issues a royalproclamation summoning Parliament to assemble. On the date given, new MPs are sworn in and then are, along with returning MPs, called to the Senate, where they are instructed to elect their speaker and return to the House of Commons to do so before adjourning.[10]: 42
The new parliamentary session is marked by theopening of Parliament, a ceremony where a range of topics can be addressed in aSpeech From the Throne given by the monarch, the governor general, or a royal delegate.[note 1] The usher of the black rod invites MPs to these events,[25] knocking on the doors of the lower house that have been slammed shut[26]—a symbolic arrangement designed to illustrate the Commons' right to deny entry to anyone, including even the monarch (but with an exception for royal messengers).[27] Once the MPs are gathered behind the Bar of the Senate—save for the prime minister, the only MP permitted into the Senate proper to sit near the throne dais—the House of Commons speaker presents to the monarch or governor general, and formally claims the rights and privileges of the House of Commons; and then the speaker of the Senate, on behalf of the Crown, replies in acknowledgement after the sovereign or viceroy takes their seat on the throne.[10]: 42 The speech is then read aloud. It can outline the program of theCabinet for the upcoming legislative session, as well as other matters chosen by the speaker.
Aparliamentary session lasts until a prorogation, after which, without ceremony, both chambers of the legislature cease all legislative business until the governor general issues another proclamation calling for a new session to begin; except for the election of a speaker for the House of Commons and his or her claiming of that house's privileges, the same procedures for the opening of Parliament are again followed. After a number of such sessions—having ranged from one to seven[10]: 45 —a Parliament comes to an end viadissolution, and a general election typically follows. Subject to the governor general's discretion, general elections are held four years after the previous on the third Monday in October or, on the recommendation of thechief electoral officer, the following Tuesday or Monday. The governor general may dissolve Parliament and call a general election outside of these fixed dates, conventionally on the advice of the prime minister, which may be preceded by a successfulmotion of no confidence. The timing of such dissolutions may be politically motivated.[28][29][30]
Both houses determinemotions byvoice vote; the presiding officer puts the question and, after listening to shouts of "yea" and "nay" from the members, announces which side is victorious. This decision by the Speaker is final, unless a recorded vote is demanded by members—requiring at least two in the Senate and five in the House of Commons. Members of both houses vote by rising in their places to be counted; the speaker of the Senate is permitted to vote on a motion or bill—though does so irregularly, in the interest of impartiality—and, if there is no majority, the motion is defeated. In the Commons, however, the speaker cannot vote, unless to break a tie. The speaker customarily votes in favour of thestatus quo. The constitution establishes thequorums to be 15 senators in the upper house and 20 members in the lower house, the speaker of each body being counted within the tally.
Voting can thus take three possible forms: whenever possible, leaving the matter open for future consideration and allowing for further discussion by the house; when no further discussion is possible, taking into account that the matter could somehow be brought back in future and be decided by a majority in the house; or, leaving a bill in its existing form rather than having it amended. For example, during the vote on the2005 budget, which was considered avote of confidence, the speaker of the House of Commons cast the tie-breaking vote during thesecond reading, moving in favour of the budget and allowing its passage. If the vote on thethird reading had again been tied, the speaker would have been expected to vote against the bill, bringing down the government.
Simultaneousinterpretation for both official languages,English andFrench, is provided at all times during sessions of both houses.
Laws, known in their draft form asbills, may be introduced by any member of either house. However, most bills originate in the House of Commons, of which most are put forward byministers of the Crown, making them government bills, as opposed toprivate members' bills or private senators' bills, which are launched by MPs and senators, respectively, who are not in cabinet. Draft legislation may also be categorized as public bills, if they apply to the general public, orprivate bills, if they concern a particular person or limited group of people. Each bill then goes through a series of stages in each chamber, beginning with thefirst reading. It is not, however, until the bill'ssecond reading that the general principles of the proposed law are debated; though rejection is a possibility, such is not common for government bills.
Next, the bill is sent by the house where it is being debated to one of several committees. The Standing Orders outline the general mandate for all committees, allowing them to review: bills as they pertain to relevant departments; the program and policy plans, as well as the projected expenditures, and the effectiveness of the implementation thereof, for the same departments; and the analysis of the performance of those departments.[31] Most often, bills end up before astanding committee, which is a body of members or senators who specialize in a particular subject (such asforeign affairs), and who may hear testimony from ministers and experts, debate the bill, and recommend amendments. The bill may also be committed to theCommittee of the Whole, a body consisting of, as the name suggests, all the members of the chamber in question. Finally, the bill could be referred to anad hoc committee established solely to review the piece of legislation in question. Each chamber has their own procedure for dealing with this, with the Senate establishing special committees that function like most other committees, and the House of Commons establishing legislative committees, the chair of the latter being appointed by the speaker of the House of Commons, and is normally one of his deputies. Whichever committee is used, any amendments proposed by the committee are considered by the whole house in the report stage. Furthermore, additional amendments not proposed by the committee may also be made.
After the report stage (or, if the committee made no amendments to the bill, immediately after the committee stage), the final phase of the bill—thethird reading—occurs, at which time further amendments are not permitted in the House of Commons, but are allowed in the Senate. If it passes the third reading, the bill is sent to the other house of Parliament, where it passes through the same stages;[note 2] amendments made by the second chamber require the assent of the original house in order to stand part of the final bill. If one house passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill fails.
Once the bill is passed in identical form by both houses, it is presented forRoyal Assent; in theory, the governor general has three options: grant Royal Assent, thereby making the bill into law; withhold Royal Assent, thereby vetoing the bill; or reserve the bill for the signification of the King'spleasure, which allows the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent. If the governor general does grant Royal Assent, the monarch may, within two years, disallow the bill, thus annulling the law in question. In the federal sphere, no bill has ever been denied royal approval.
In conformity with the British model, only the House of Commons may originate bills for the imposition of taxes or for the appropriation of Crown funds. The constitutional amendment procedure does make provision for the Commons overcoming an otherwise-required Senate resolution in most cases. Otherwise, the theoretical power of both houses over bills is equal, with the assent of each being required for passage. In practice, however, the House of Commons is dominant, with the Senate rarely exercising its powers in a way that opposes the will of the democratically elected house.
Thefederal government consists of themonarch (represented by the governor general)-in-council, which is a collection of ministers of the Crown appointed by the governor general to direct the use ofexecutive powers. Per the tenets ofresponsible government, these individuals are almost always drawn from Parliament, and are predominantly from the House of Commons, the only body to which ministers are held accountable, typically duringQuestion Period, wherein ministers are obliged to answer questions posed by members of the opposition. Hence, the person who can command the confidence of the lower chamber—usually the leader of the party with the most seats therein—is typically appointed as prime minister. Should that person not hold a seat in the House of Commons, the prime minister will, by convention, seek election to one at the earliest possible opportunity; frequently, in such situations, a junior member of Parliament who holds asafe seat will resign to allow the prime minister to run for that riding in aby-election. If no party holds a majority, it is customary for the governor general to summon aminority government orcoalition government, depending on which the commons will support.
The lower house may attempt to bring down the government by either rejecting a motion ofconfidence—generally initiated by a minister to reinforce the Cabinet's support in the commons—or by passing a motion of no confidence—introduced by the opposition to display its distrust of the Cabinet. Important bills that form part of the government's agenda will usually be considered matters of confidence; the budget is always a matter of confidence. Where a government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged to either resign (allowing the governor general to appoint theleader of the Opposition to the office) or seek the dissolution of Parliament and the call of a general election. A precedent, however, was set in 1968, when the government ofLester B. Pearson unexpectedly lost a confidence vote but was allowed to remain in power with the mutual consent of the leaders of the other parties.
In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the government is quite weak in comparison to the equivalent chamber in other countries using theWestminster system. With theplurality voting system used in parliamentary elections tending to provide the governing party with a large majority, and a party system that gives leaders strict control over their caucus (to the point that MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders), there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Additionally, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election, and an Americanized system for selecting political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom;[32] John Robson of theNational Post opined that Canada's parliament had become a body akin to theAmerican Electoral College, "its sole and ceremonial role to confirm the executive in power."[33]
At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such asJeffrey Simpson,Donald Savoie, andJohn Gomery—argued that both Parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power.[34] Thus, defeats of majority governments on issues of confidence are very rare. In contrast, a minority government is more volatile, and is more likely to fall due to loss of confidence. The last prime ministers to lose confidence votes wereStephen Harper in 2011,Paul Martin in 2005 andJoe Clark in 1979, all involving minority governments. The passage of theReform Act and resulting changes to theParliament of Canada Act, in 2015, were a response to this trend and an attempt to increase the power and independence of MPs.[35][36][37][38]
Parliament possesses a number of privileges, collectively and accordingly known asparliamentary privilege, each house being the guardian and administrator of its own set of rights. Parliament itself determines the extent of parliamentary privilege, each house overseeing its own affairs, but the constitution bars it from conferring any "exceeding those at the passing of such an Act held, enjoyed, and exercised by the [British House of] Commons... and by the Members thereof."[39]
The foremost dispensation held by both houses of Parliament is that offreedom of speech in debate; nothing said within the chambers may be questioned by any court or other institution outside of Parliament. In particular, a member of either house cannot be sued forslander based on words uttered in the course of parliamentary proceedings, the only restraint on debate being set by the standing orders of each house. Further, MPs and senators are immune to arrest in civil (but not criminal) cases, from jury service and attendance in courts as witnesses. They may, however, be disciplined by their colleagues for breach of the rules, includingcontempt of Parliament—disobedience of its authority; for example, giving false testimony before a parliamentary committee—and breaches of its own privileges.
TheCanadian Heraldic Authority, on 15 April 2008, confirmed the right of the Parliament of Canada to use aheraldic badge composed of symbols of the three elements of Parliament: theescutcheon of theRoyal Arms of Canada with the maces of the House of Commons and Senate crossed behind.[40]
The budget for the Parliament of Canada for the 2010fiscal year was$583,567,000.[41]
Following the cession ofNew France to theUnited Kingdom in the1763 Treaty of Paris, Canada was governed according to theRoyal Proclamation issued byKing George III in that same year. To this was added theQuebec Act, by which the power to make ordinances was granted to agovernor-in-council, both the governor and council being appointed by the British monarch in Westminster, on the advice of his or her ministers there. In 1791, the Province of Quebec was divided intoUpper andLower Canada, each with an electedlegislative assembly, an appointedlegislative council, and a governor, mirroring the parliamentary structure in Britain.
During theWar of 1812,American troopsset fire to thebuildings of theLegislative Assembly of Upper Canada inYork (nowToronto). In 1841, the British government united the two Canadas into theProvince of Canada, with a singlelegislature composed of, again, an assembly, council, and governor general; the 84 members of the lower chamber were equally divided among the two former provinces, though Lower Canada had a higher population. The governor still held significant personal influence over Canadian affairs until 1848, whenresponsible government was implemented in Canada.
The actual site of Parliament shifted on a regular basis: From 1841 to 1844, it sat inKingston, where the presentKingston General Hospital now stands; from 1844 until the1849 fire that destroyed the building, the legislature was inMontreal; and, after a few years of alternating between Toronto andQuebec City, the legislature was finally moved toOttawa in 1856,Queen Victoria having chosen that city as Canada's capital in 1857.[42]
The modern-day Parliament of Canada came into existence in 1867, in which year the Parliament of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland passed theBritish North America Act, 1867, uniting the provinces ofNew Brunswick,Nova Scotia, and Canada—with the Province of Canada split intoQuebec andOntario—into a single federation called theDominion of Canada. Though the form of the new federal legislature was again nearly identical to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the decision to retain this model was made with heavy influence from the just-concludedAmerican Civil War, which indicated to manyCanadians the faults of theAmerican federal system, with its relatively powerful states and a less powerful federal government. TheBritish North America Act limited the powers of the provinces, providing that all subjects not explicitly delegated to them by that document remain within the authority of the Canadian Parliament, while simultaneously giving the provinces unique powers in certain agreed-upon areas of jurisdiction.
Full legislative autonomy was granted by theStatute of Westminster, 1931, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Though the statute allowed the Parliament of Canada to repeal or amend previously British laws as they applied to Canada, it did not permit amendment to Canada's constitution, including the British North America Acts. Hence, whenever a constitutional amendment was sought by the Canadian Parliament, the enactment of a British law was necessary, though Canada's consent was required. The Parliament of Canada was granted limited power to amend the constitution by a British Act of Parliament in 1949, but it was not permitted to affect the powers of provincial governments, the official positions of the English and French languages, rights of any class of persons with respect to schools, or the maximum five-year term of the legislature.
While her father, KingGeorge VI, had been the first Canadian monarch to grant royal assent in the legislature—doing so in 1939—QueenElizabeth II was the first sovereign to deliver thespeech from the throne. This event, in 1957, was the first time television cameras were allowed into the chambers of parliament, as theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast the speech nation-wide.[43]
The Canadian House of Commons and Senate last requested the Parliament of the United Kingdom to enact a constitutional amendment in 1982, in the form of theCanada Act 1982 which included theConstitution Act, 1982.[44] This legislation terminated the power of the British Parliament's ability to legislate for Canada and the authority to amend the constitution was transferred to the Canadian House of Commons, the Senate, and the provincial legislative assemblies, acting jointly. Most amendments require the consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and thelegislative assemblies of two-thirds of the provinces representing a majority of the population; the unanimous consent of provincial legislative assemblies is required for certain amendments, including those affecting the sovereign, the governor general, theprovincial lieutenant governors, the official status of the English and French languages, theSupreme Court of Canada, and the amending formulas themselves.
ParlAmericas membership is composed of the national legislatures of the 35 independent states of the Americas. To observe a balance in regional representation [ . . . ]
Canada's Parliament and in-depth coverage of key political events and public policy debates.
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45°25′31″N75°42′00″W / 45.42521°N 75.70011°W /45.42521; -75.70011
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