Both hypokinetic features (bradykinesia and akinesia) and hyperkinetic features (cogwheel rigidity and tremors at rest) are displayed in parkinsonism.[3] These are the fourmotor signs that are found inParkinson's disease (PD) – after which Parkinsonism is named – and indementia with Lewy bodies (DLB),Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD), and many other conditions.
This set of signs occurs in a wide range of conditions and may have many causes, includingneurodegenerative conditions, drugs,toxins,metabolic diseases, and neurological conditions other than Parkinson's disease.[4]
Chronicmanganese (Mn) exposure has been shown to produce a parkinsonism-like illness characterized by movement abnormalities.[14] This condition is not responsive totypical therapies used in the treatment of PD, suggesting an alternative pathway than the typicaldopaminergic loss within thesubstantia nigra.[14] Manganese may accumulate in thebasal ganglia, leading to the abnormal movements that characterize parkinsonism.[15] A mutation of theSLC30A10 gene, a manganese efflux transporter necessary for decreasing intracellular Mn, has been linked with the development of this parkinsonism-like disease.[16] TheLewy bodies typical to PD are not seen in Mn-induced parkinsonism.[15]
Agent Orange may be a cause of parkinsonism, although evidence is inconclusive and further research is needed.[17]
Other toxins that have been associated with parkinsonism are:
Vascular Parkinsonism is typically caused by ministrokes. It typically affects gait, often marked with rigidity.[24][25] Multiple conditions related to Vascular Parkinsonism include:
^abcAminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP (2005). "Chapter 7: Movement disorders".Clinical Neurology (6th ed.). Lange: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 241–45.ISBN978-0-07-142360-1.
^abOgawa T, Fujii S, Kuya K, Kitao SI, Shinohara Y, Ishibashi M, et al. (September 2018)."Role of neuroimaging on differentiation of Parkinson's disease and its related diseases".Yonago Acta Med (Review).61 (3):145–55.doi:10.33160/yam.2018.09.001.PMC6158357.PMID30275744.Parkinsonian syndromes are a group of movement disorders characterized by classical motor symptoms such as tremors, bradykinesia, and rigidity. They are most frequently due to primary neurodegenerative disease, resulting in the loss of dopaminergic nerve terminals along the nigrostriatal pathway, similar to idiopathic PD, MSA, PSP, CBD, and DLB.
^Christine CW, Aminoff MJ (September 2004). "Clinical differentiation of parkinsonian syndromes: prognostic and therapeutic relevance".The American Journal of Medicine.117 (6):412–9.doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.032.PMID15380498.
^Maltête D, Guyant-Maréchal L, Mihout B, Hannequin D (March 2006). "Movement disorders and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: a review".Parkinsonism & Related Disorders.12 (2):65–71.doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.10.004.PMID16364674.
^Tse W, Cersosimo MG, Gracies JM, Morgello S, Olanow CW, Koller W (August 2004). "Movement disorders and AIDS: a review".Parkinsonism & Related Disorders.10 (6):323–34.doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.03.001.PMID15261874.
^Carod-Artal FJ (2003). "[Neurological syndromes linked with the intake of plants and fungi containing a toxic component (I). Neurotoxic syndromes caused by the ingestion of plants, seeds and fruits]".Revista de Neurología (Review) (in Spanish).36 (9):860–71.PMID12717675.
^Matsuda S, Waragai M, Shinotoh H, Takahashi N, Takagi K, Hattori T (1999-05-01). "Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF) presenting progressive dementia and parkinsonism".Journal of the Neurological Sciences.165 (1):43–47.doi:10.1016/s0022-510x(99)00075-1.ISSN0022-510X.PMID10426146.S2CID31594108.
^Goldstein S, Friedman JH, Innis R, Seibyl J, Marek K (March 2001). "Hemi-parkinsonism due to a midbrain arteriovenous malformation: dopamine transporter imaging".Movement Disorders.16 (2):350–353.doi:10.1002/mds.1047.ISSN0885-3185.PMID11295793.S2CID22701874.
