By the time the construction was finished, theFrench Revolution had started; theNational Constituent Assembly voted in 1791 to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into amausoleum for the remains of distinguished French citizens, modelled on thePantheon inRome which had been used in this way since the 17th century. The firstpanthéonisé wasHonoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, although his remains were removed from the building a few years later. The Panthéon was twice restored to church usage in the course of the 19th century—although Soufflot's remains were transferred inside it in 1829—until theFrench Third Republic finally decreed the building's exclusive use as a mausoleum in 1881. The placement ofVictor Hugo's remains in the crypt in 1885 was its first entombment in over 50 years.
The successive changes in the Panthéon's purpose resulted in modifications of thepedimental sculptures and the capping of the dome by a cross or a flag; some of the originally existing windows were blocked up with masonry in order to give the interior a darker and more funereal atmosphere,[2] which compromised somewhat Soufflot's initial attempt at combining the lightness and brightness of theGothic cathedral with classical principles.[3] The architecture of the Panthéon is an early example ofNeoclassicism, surmounted by adome that owes some of its character toBramante'sTempietto.
In 1851,Léon Foucault conducted a demonstration ofdiurnal motion at the Panthéon by suspending a pendulum from the ceiling, acopy of which is still visible today. As of December 2021 the remains of 81 people (75 men and six women) had been transferred to the Panthéon.[4] More than half of all thepanthéonisations were made underNapoleon's rule during theFirst Empire.
The site of the Panthéon had great significance in Paris history, and was occupied by a series of monuments. It was on Mount Lucotitius, a height on the Left Bank where the forum of the Roman town ofLutetia was located. It was also the original burial site ofSaint Genevieve, who had led the resistance to theHuns when they threatened Paris in 451. In 508,Clovis, King of the Franks, constructed a church there, where he and his wife were later buried in 511 and 545. The church, originally dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul, was rededicated to Saint Genevieve, who became the patron saint of Paris. It was at the centre of theAbbey of Saint Genevieve, a centre of religious scholarship in the Middle Ages. Her relics were kept in the church, and were brought out for solemn processions when dangers threatened the city.[5]
Soufflot's original plan for the Church of Sainte Genevieve (1756)
Soufflot's final plan: the principal façade (1777)
Soufflot's plan of the three domes, one within another
Looking upward at the first and second domes
Iron rods were used to give greater strength and stability to the stone structure (1758–90)
KingLouis XV vowed in 1744 that if he recovered from his illness he would replace the dilapidated church of theAbbey of St Genevieve with a grander building worthy of the patron saint of Paris. He did recover, but ten years passed before the reconstruction and enlargement of the church was begun. In 1755 the director of the King's public works,Abel-François Poisson, marquis de Marigny, choseJacques-Germain Soufflot to design the church. Soufflot (1713–1780) had studied classical architecture in Rome over 1731–38. Most of his early work was done in Lyon. Saint Genevieve became his life's work; it was not finished until after his death.[6]
His first design was completed in 1755, and was clearly influenced by the work ofBramante, which he had studied in Italy. It took form of aGreek cross, with four naves of equal length, and monumental dome over the crossing in the centre, and a classical portico withCorinthian columns and aperistyle with a triangular pediment on the main façade.[7] The design was modified five times over the following years, with the addition of anarthex, a choir, and two towers. The design was not finalised until 1777.[8]
The foundations were laid in 1758, but due to economic problems work proceeded slowly. In 1780, Soufflot died and was replaced by his studentJean-Baptiste Rondelet. The re-modelled Abbey of St. Genevieve was finally completed in 1790, shortly after the beginning of theFrench Revolution.
The building is 110 metres long by 84 metres wide, and 83 metres high, with the crypt beneath of the same size. The ceiling was supported by isolated columns, which supported an array ofbarrel vaults andtransverse arches. The massive dome was supported bypendentives rested upon four massive pillars. Critics of the plan contended that the pillars could not support such a large dome. Soufflot strengthened the stone structure with a system of iron rods, a predecessor of modern reinforced buildings. The bars had deteriorated by the 21st century, and a major restoration project to replace them was carried out between 2010 and 2020.[9]
The dome is actually three domes, fitting within each other. The first, lowest dome, has a coffered ceiling with rosettes, and is open in the centre. Looking through this dome, the second dome is visible, decorated with the frescoThe Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve byAntoine Gros. The outermost dome, visible from the outside, is built of stone bound together with iron cramps and covered with lead sheathing, rather than of carpentry construction, as was the common French practice of the period. Concealedbuttresses inside the walls give additional support to the dome.[10]
Transfer of ashes ofVoltaire to the Pantheon (1791)
The Church of Saint Genevieve was nearly complete, with only the interior decoration unfinished, when theFrench Revolution began in 1789. In 1790, the Marquis de Vilette proposed that it be made a temple devoted to liberty, on the model of the Pantheon in Rome. "Let us install statues of our great men and lay their ashes to rest in its underground recesses."[11] The idea was formally adopted in April, 1791, after the death of the prominent revolutionary figure,The Comte de Mirabeau, the President of theNational Constituent Assembly on April 2, 1791. On April 4, 1791, the Assembly decreed "that this religious church become a temple of the nation, that the tomb of a great man become the altar of liberty." They also approved a new text over the entrance: "A grateful nation honors its great men." On the same day the declaration was approved, the funeral of Mirabeau was held in the church.[11]
The ashes ofVoltaire were placed in the Panthéon in a lavish ceremony on 11 July 1791, followed by the remains of several revolutionaries, includingJean-Paul Marat, replacing Mirabeau, and of the philosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau. In the rapid shifts of power of the Revolutionary period, two of the first men honored in Pantheon, Mirabeau and Marat, were declared enemies of the Revolution, and their remains were removed. Finally, the new government of theFrench Convention decreed in February, 1795, that no one should be placed in the Pantheon who had not been dead at least ten years.[12]
Soon after the church was transformed into a mausoleum, the Assembly approved architectural changes to make the interior darker and more solemn. The architectQuatremère de Quincy bricked up the lower windows and frosted the glass of the upper windows to reduce the light, and removed most of the ornament from the exterior. The architectural lanterns and bells were removed from the façade. All of the religious friezes and statues were destroyed in 1791; it was replaced by statuary and murals on patriotic themes.[12]
Napoleon Bonaparte, when he became First Consul in 1801, signed a Concordat with the Pope, agreeing to restore former church properties, including the Panthéon. The Panthéon was under the jurisdiction of the canons of the Cathedral ofNotre Dame de Paris. Celebrations of important events, such as the victory of Napoleon at theBattle of Austerlitz, were held there. However, the crypt of the church kept its official function as the resting place for illustrious Frenchmen. A new entrance directly to the crypt was created via the eastern porch (1809–1811). The artistAntoine-Jean Gros was commissioned to decorate the interior of the cupola. It combined the secular and religious aspects of the church; it showed The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve, conducted to heaven by angels, in the presence of great leaders of France, fromClovis I andCharlemagne to Napoleon and theEmpress Josephine.
During the reign of Napoleon, the remains of forty-one illustrious Frenchmen were placed in the crypt. They were mostly military officers, senators and other high officials of the Empire, but also included the explorerLouis-Antoine de Bougainville and the painterJoseph-Marie Vien, the teacher of Napoleon's official painter,Jacques-Louis David.[13]
Painting on the Pendentive, depictingDeath byFrançois Gérard (1821–1837)
During theBourbon Restoration which followed the fall of Napoleon, in 1816Louis XVIII restored the entire Panthéon, including the crypt, to the Catholic Church. The church was also at last officially consecrated in the presence of the King, a ceremony which had been omitted during the Revolution. The sculpture on the pediment byJean Guillaume Moitte, calledThe Fatherland crowning the heroic and civic virtues was replaced by a religious-themed work byDavid d'Angers. The reliquary of Saint Genevieve had been destroyed during the Revolution, but a few relics were found and restored to the church (They are now in the neighboring Church ofSaint-Etienne-du-Mont). In 1822François Gérard was commissioned to decorate the pendentives of the dome with new works representing Justice, Death, the Nation, and Fame.Jean-Antoine Gros was commissioned to redo his fresco on the inner dome, replacing Napoleon with Louis XVIII, as well as figures of Louis XVI andMarie Antoinette. The new version of the cupola was inaugurated in 1824 byCharles X. As to the crypt where the tombs were located, it was locked and closed to visitors.[14]
Under Louis Philippe I, the Second Republic and Napoleon III (1830–1871)
TheFrench Revolution of 1830 placedLouis Philippe I on the throne. He expressed sympathy for Revolutionary values, and on 26 August 1830, the church once again became the Pantheon. However, the crypt remained closed to the public, and no new remains were added. The only change made was to the main pediment, which had been remade with a radiant cross; it was remade again by D'Angers with a patriotic work calledThe Nation Distributing Crowns Handed to Her by Liberty, to Great Men, Civil and Military, While History Inscribes Their Names.
Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848 and replaced by the elected government of theSecond French Republic, which valued revolutionary themes. The new government designated the Pantheon "The Temple of Humanity", and proposed to decorate it with sixty new murals honouring human progress in all fields. In 1851 theFoucault Pendulum of astronomerLéon Foucault was hung beneath the dome to illustrate the rotation of the earth. However, on complaints from the Church, it was removed in December of the same year.
Louis Napoléon, nephew of the Emperor, was elected President of France in December 1848, and in 1852 staged a coup-d'état and made himself Emperor. Once again the Pantheon was returned to the church, with the title of "National Basilica". The remaining relics of Saint Genevieve were restored to the church, and two groups of sculpture commemorating events in the life of the Saint were added. The crypt remained closed.
Christ Showing the Angel of France the Destiny of Her People, mosaic by Antoine-Auguste-Ernest Hébert
The National Convention by François-Léon Siccard (1921)
Victory leading the Armies of the Republic byEdouard Detaille (1905)
The Basilica suffered damage from German shelling during the 1870Franco-Prussian War. During the brief reign of theParis Commune in May 1871, it suffered more damage during fighting between the Commune soldiers and the French Army. During the early years of theThird Republic, under conservative governments, it functioned as a church, but the interior walls were largely bare. Beginning in 1874, the interior was redecorated with new murals and sculptural groups linking French history and the history of the church, by notable artists includingPuvis de Chavannes andAlexandre Cabanel, and the artist Antoine-Auguste-Ernest Hébert, who made a mosaic under the vault of the apsidal chapel calledChrist Showing the Angel of France the Destiny of Her People.[15]
In 1881, a decree was passed to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into a mausoleum again.Victor Hugo was the first to be placed in the crypt afterwards. The subsequent governments approved the entry of literary figures, including the writerÉmile Zola (1908), and, afterWorld War I, leaders of the French socialist movement, includingLéon Gambetta (1920) andJean Jaurès (1924). The Third Republic governments also decreed that the building should be decorated with sculpture representing "the golden ages and great men of France." The principal works remaining from this period include the sculptural group calledThe National Assembly, commemorating the French Revolution; a statue ofMirabeau, the first man interred in the Pantheon, by Jean-Antoine Ingabert; (1889–1920); and two patriotic murals in the apseVictory Leading the Armies of the Republic toTowards Glory byÉdouard Detaille, andGlory Entering the Temple, Followed by Poets, Philosophers, Scientists and Warriors, by Marie-Désiré-Hector d'Espouy (1906).[15]
The final plan of the dome was accepted in 1777, and it was completed in 1790. It was designed to rival those ofSt. Peter's Basilica in Rome andSt Paul's Cathedral in London. Unlike the dome ofLes Invalides in Paris, which has a wooden framework, the dome is constructed entirely of stone. It is actually three domes, one within the other, with the painted ceiling, visible from below, on the second dome. The dome is 83.0 metres (272 ft) high, compared withthe tallest dome in the world, St. Peter's Basilica at 136.57 metres (448.1 ft).
Dome
The Panthéon represented with a statue of Fame at its top
The dome is capped by a cross. However, a statue of Saint Genevieve was initially supposed to sit at the top of the dome. A cross was put temporarily in 1790. After the transformation into a mausoleum in 1791, it was planned that the cross would be replaced by a statue representing Fame. The project was however abandoned. Between 1830 and 1851, a flag was put instead. The cross returned after Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte restored the building to church use. The cross was replaced with a red flag during theParis Commune in 1871. A cross returned subsequently.
The fresco by Gros seen from inside the dome
TheApotheosis of Saint Genevieve, in the dome byAntoine-Jean Gros (1811–1834)
Looking up from the crossing of the transept beneath the dome, the painting byJean-Antoine Gros, theApotheosis of Saint Genevieve (1811–1834), is visible through the opening in the lowest cupola. The triangle in the center symbolizes the Trinity, surrounded by a halo of light. The Hebrew characters spell the name of God. The only character seen in full is Saint Genevieve herself, seated on a rocky promontory. The groups around the painting, made during the Restoration of the Monarchy, represent Kings of France who played an important role in protecting the church. To the left of Saint Genevieve is a group includingClovis, the first King to convert to Christianity. The second group is centred aroundCharlemagne, who created the first universities. The third group is centred aroundLouis IX of France, or Saint Louis, with theCrown of Thorns which he brought back from the Holy Land to place in the church ofSainte-Chapelle. The last group is centred aroundLouis XVIII, the last King of the Restoration, and his niece, looking up into the clouds at the martyredLouis XVI andMarie-Antoinette. The angels in the scene are carrying theChartre, the document by which Louis XVIII re-established the church after the French Revolution.[18]
The four pendentives, or arches, which support the dome are decorated with paintings from the same period byFrançois Gérard depictingGlory,Death,The Nation andJustice (1821–37).
The pediment, with the central figures of the Nation and Liberty: statesmen and scholars to the left, soldiers to the right
The façade andperistyle on the east side, modeled after a Greek temple, featuresCorinthian columns andpedimental sculpture byDavid d'Angers, completed in 1837. The sculpture on this pediment, replacing an early pediment with religious themes, represents "The Nation distributing crowns handed to her by Liberty to great men, civil and military, while history inscribes their names". To the left are figures of distinguished scientists, philosophers, and statesmen, includingRousseau,Voltaire,Lafayette, andBichat. To the right isNapoleon Bonaparte, along with soldiers from each military service and students in uniform from theÉcole Polytechnique.[19] Below is the inscription: "To the great men, from a grateful nation" ("Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante"). This was added in 1791, when the Panthéon was created. It was removed during theRestoration of the monarchy, then put back in 1830.
Below the peristyle are five sculpted bas-reliefs; the two reliefs over the main doors, commissioned during the Revolution, represent the two main purposes of the building: "Public Education" (left) and "Patriotic Devotion" (right).
The façade originally had large windows, but they were replaced when the church became a mausoleum, to make the interior darker and more somber.
The primary decoration of the Western Nave is a series of paintings, beginning in the Narthex, depicting the lives ofSaint Denis, the patron saint of Paris, and longer series on the life ofSaint Genevieve, byPuvis de Chavannes,Alexandre Cabanel,Jules Eugène Lenepveu and other notable history painters of the 19th century. The paintings of the Southern nave and Northern Nave continue this series on the Christian heroes of France, including scenes from the lives ofCharlemagne,Clovis,Louis IX of France andJoan of Arc. From 1906 to 1922 the Panthéon was the site ofAuguste Rodin's famous sculptureThe Thinker.
In 1851, physicistLéon Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the Earth by constructing a 67-metre (220 ft) pendulum beneath the central dome. The original sphere from the pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon in the 1990s (starting in 1995) during renovations at theMusée des Arts et Métiers. The original pendulum was later returned to theMusée des Arts et Métiers, and a copy is now displayed at the Panthéon.[20] It has been listed since 1920 as amonument historique by theFrench Ministry of Culture.[21]
Interment in the crypt of the Panthéon is severely restricted and is allowed only by a parliamentary act for "National Heroes". Similar high honours exist inLes Invalides for historical military leaders such asNapoleon,Turenne andVauban.
The widely repeated story that the remains of Voltaire were stolen by religious fanatics in 1814 and thrown into a garbage heap is false. Such rumours resulted in the coffin being opened in 1897, which confirmed that his remains were still present.[24]
On 30 November 2002, in an elaborate but solemn procession, sixRepublican Guards carried the coffin ofAlexandre Dumas (1802–1870), the author ofThe Three Musketeers and other famous novels, to the Panthéon. Draped in a blue-velvet cloth inscribed with the Musketeers' motto "Un pour tous, tous pour un" ("One for all, all for one"), the remains had been transported from their original interment site in the Cimetière deVillers-Cotterêts inAisne, France. In his speech, PresidentJacques Chirac stated that an injustice was being corrected with the proper honouring of one of France's greatest authors.
In January 2007, President Jacques Chirac unveiled a plaque in the Panthéon to more than 2,600 people recognised asRighteous Among the Nations by theYad Vashem memorial in Israel for saving the lives of Jews who would otherwise have been deported to concentration camps. The tribute in the Panthéon underlines the fact that around three-quarters of the country's Jewish population survived the war, often thanks to ordinary people who provided help at the risk of their own life.This plaque says:
Sous la chape de haine et de nuit tombée sur la France dans les années d'Occupation, des lumières, par milliers, refusèrent de s'éteindre. Nommés "Justes parmi les nations" ou restés anonymes, des femmes et des hommes, de toutes origines et de toutes conditions, ont sauvé des juifs des persécutions antisémites et des camps d'extermination. Bravant les risques encourus, ils ont incarné l'honneur de la France, ses valeurs de justice, de tolérance et d'humanité.
Translation:
Under the cloak of hatred and darkness that spread over France during the years of [Nazi] occupation, thousands of lights refused to be extinguished. Named as "Righteous among the Nations" or remaining anonymous, women and men, of all backgrounds and social classes, saved Jews from anti-Semitic persecution and the extermination camps. Braving the risks involved, they embodied the honour of France, and its values of justice, tolerance and humanity.
First person honoured with burial in the Panthéon, 4 April 1791. Disinterred on 25 November 1794 and buried in an anonymous grave. His remains are yet to be recovered.[25]
Heart buried inMilan Cathedral in 1810. Body disinterred from the Panthéon in 1861 and returned to his family at their request. His remains were transferred from Paris to Rome on 22 August 1861.
In 1861 Cardinal François-Nicholas-Madeleine Morlot, Archbishop of Paris, established that some burials in the church had to be cleared. He notified a great-nephew of Cardinal Vincenti Mareri, who took care of transferring the deceased's bones to Italy. The solemn funeral took place in Rieti and the cardinal's body was placed in the family tomb in the chapel of Santa Caterina, next to the tomb of his brother Alessandro, in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta.
Transferred to the Panthéon with her husband Marcellin Berthelot, who had refused to be buried apart from her. The first woman to be interred in the Panthéon.
Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Félix Éboué. Transferred fromPère Lachaise Cemetery. Victor Schœlcher had wanted to be buried with his father Marc, who was therefore also interred in the Panthéon.
Transferred to the Panthéon the same day as Victor Schœlcher. Transferred fromPère Lachaise Cemetery. Victor had wanted to be buried with his father who was therefore is also interred in the Panthéon.
Symbolic interment. The coffin of Germaine Tillion at the Panthéon does not contain her remains but soil from her gravesite, because her family did not want the body itself moved.[29]
Symbolic interment. The coffin of Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz at the Panthéon does not contain her remains but soil from her gravesite, because her family did not want the body itself moved.[29]
Symbolic interment. Baker'scenotaph contains soil from her birthplace in Missouri, from France, and from her final resting place inMonaco Cemetery.[17][4][32]
^Mullié, Charles (1852). "Michel Ordener".Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850 (in French). Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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