In theEarly Iron Age,Transdanubia was inhabited by thePannonians or Pannonii,[note 1] a collection ofIllyrian tribes. TheCelts invaded the region during theLate Iron Age, andGallo-Roman historianPompeius Trogus wrote that they faced heavy resistance from the locals, which eventually prevented them from overrunning the southern part of Transdanubia. Some tribes advanced as far asDelphi, with the Scordisci settling inSyrmia (279 BC) upon being forced to withdraw.[12] Additionally, the arrival of the Celts in Transdanubia disrupted the flow of amber from theBaltic Sea region, through theAmber Road, to the Illyrians.[13] They founded many villages. Those that held prominent economic significance developed intooppida.[12] Independent tribes minted their own coins with the faces of their leaders. These were at first modelled on Macedonian and, later,Roman currency.[14]
Upon the Scordisci's withdrawal and settlement, they and theDardani (inDardania) both became strong powers that opposed each other. The Dardani consistently raidedMacedon and developed close ties to Rome.[15]Philip V, who was a vehement enemy of the Dardani, allied with the Scordisci and, in 179 BC, persuaded theBastarnae (at theDanube Delta) to break into Italy and subdue them on the way. Despite Philip'sdefeat at the hands of the Romans in 197 BC and thefailure of the Bastarnae, at this time the Dardani's power crumbled under the pressure from the Macedonians and Scordisci. Finally,Perseus annihilated them, giving way to a hundred years of Scordisci hegemony in theBalkans. During this time, the tribe started raiding the new province ofMacedonia, and —Strabo says— expanded as far asPaeonia,Illyria, andThrace.[16]
Aquileia's foundation in 181 BC was the first step towards the Roman takeover of Pannonia. The town served as the starting station of the Amber Road and the launching point for attacks in that direction.[17] The Scordisci, in alliance with the Dalmatae, were in armed conflict with the Romans as early as 156 BC and 119 BC. In both wars, the Romans failed to conquer Siscia (nowSisak, Croatia), which laid in a key position.[18] After these setbacks, Rome turned its attention to Noricum, which had both iron and silver mines.[19]
As part of a new Celtic migration wave at the end of the 2nd century BC, theBoii leftNorthern Italy and established themselves as a significant power on theDanube.[20] According toPosidonius's record of theCimbri migration (preserved by Strabo), they were first repulsed by the Boii, then by the Scordisci, and then by theTaurisci towards theHelvetii. This describes the balance of power in the region.[21] In the early 1st century BC, theDacians emerged as a new dominant power. While their hold on the area between the Danube and theTisza river was loose, they had considerable influence in the territories beyond.[22] In 88 BC,Scipio Asiaticus (consul 83 BC) defeated the Scordisci so badly that they retreated to the eastern part of Syrmia.[23] Taking advantage of this situation, the Dacian kingBurebista vanquished them sometime between 65 and 50 BC, and subsequently the Boii[note 2] and the Taurisci too. Thanks to the ebb of these entities, several local tribes regained their independence and influence.[25] In the context ofMithridates VI Eupator's unfulfilled plan to invade Italy from the north (64 BC), the territory he was to cross is noted to have belonged to the Pannonians.[26] Immediately after Burebista's death (c. 44 BC),Dacia's kingdom dissolved too,[24] leaving no entity in the region that Rome would make allowances for.[27]
Map showing Burebista's dominance over Pannonia and Bohemia.
People of Transdanubia and its surroundings before the Roman conquest
The Pannonians were driven into conflict due to their support of the Dalmatae in their strife against Rome,[11] but they weren't long-term and known enemies.[28] The tribes north of theDrava River didn't participate in this, nor in the subsequent fights.[19] In 35 BC,Octavian led a campaign against theIapydes and the Pannonians,[29] in which he captured Siscia in a month-long siege[30] and occupied a large part of theSava River valley. This was in accordance with Caesar's plan of creating a base for an invasion of Dacia, not realized due to hisassassination. However, Octavian only used thehoax of the "Dacian threat" as a pretense to gain control over a large amount of land in theSecond Triumvirate.[31]
In 15 BC, the future emperorTiberius defeated the Scordisci, forcing them to become allies. This was in response to Pannonian and Scordisci incursions the previous year.[32] The following events were part of theRoman Empire's efforts to reach the Danube[33] and are sometimes known thematically asBellum Pannonicum.[34]
In 14 BC, the Pannonians rose up.Vipsanius Agrippa was sent to the region after another rebellion in 13 BC. After his death the following year, the campaign was taken over by Tiberius,[35] who celebrated histriumph in 11 BC. The province ofIllyricum was established between the Sava and theAdriatic Sea.[36] In 10 BC, Tiberius returned to quell a new uprising of the Pannonians and Dalmatae.[37] After winning in 9 BC, he sold the youth of the Breuci andAmantini as slaves in Italy[38] and held anovation.[37] His operations between 12 and 9 BC included constant expeditions into territories north of the Drava and almost certainly brought the whole Transdanubia under Roman control, even though there's no direct evidence for that.[39]
Through Tiberius Nero, then my stepson and legate, I brought under Roman authority the Pannonian peoples, which no Roman army had approached before I became princeps and advanced the boundaries of Illyricum to the bank of the Danube.
Pannonia was invaded by the Dacians in 10 BC. The Romans launched campaigns through the Danube in order to secure it as the imperial border and defend the threatened new land.Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus's (consul 16 BC) operation in 1 AD extended as far as the Elbe. In 10 AD,Cornelius Lentulus Augur was able to debar not just the Dacians, but also the Sarmatians "from access to the Danube", saysFlorus. Locally more important was the offensive ofMarcus Vinicius against the tribes east of theDanube Bend, showing an intent of "monopolizing" the Northern Transdanubian region politically. The last decade of the century saw theMarcomanni under their kingMaroboduus, settling north of Pannonia.[41] Augustus planned a two-sided attack on them, with one army approaching their territory from theRhine and another one under Tiberius crossing the Danube atCarnuntum.[42]
Before witnessing any result, Tiberius had to rush back in 6 AD and face a new uprising.[43][note 3] The unfoldingBellum Batonianum lasted for three years. The Breuci (underBato the Breucian) andDaesitiates (underBato the Daesitiate andPinnes) took the leading role, while the tribes north of the Drava stayed out again. The insurgents attempted to invade Italy andMacedonia, but due to their lack of success, they united to besiegeSirmium (nowSremska Mitrovica, Serbia). There,Caecina Severus defeated the insurgents, who retreated into theFruška gora Mountains.[45] He annihilated them the following year when they tried to intercept him on his way to join Tiberius at Siscia.[46] Tiberius competently initiated ascorched-earth policy[47] which was unsatisfactory for Augustus, who sent more generals, includingGermanicus andPlautius Silvanus (consul 2 BC) to thewar theatre.[48] A capitulation was forced out in 8 AD, and Bato the Breucian delivered Pinnes to the Romans, becoming a vassal king of his tribe. However, the revolt flared up once again as the Daesitiates captured and executed Bato the Breucian and persuaded his people to continue the resistance.[49] Silvanus reconquered them and ousted Bato the Daesitiate into theDinaric Alps, where he laid down arms in 9 AD.[50]
Illyricum was divided intoDalmatia (initially called Illyricum Superius) and Pannonia (initially Illyricum Inferius) in 8 or 9 AD.[note 4][51]
According toSuetonius, with theBellum Batonianum, Tiberius finally defeated all peoples between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea.[11] No Illyrian resistance is known after this, not due to the natives' compliance with the newstatus quo, but due to their extreme exhaustion.[52] The eligible Pannonian youth were conscripted and commanded to other provinces.[53] The communities taking part in the uprising were afterward relocated and organized intocivitates under military supervision.[note 5][37]
The military occupation of Pannonia may have been carried out in gradual steps.[19] The Romans felt it necessary to resettle certain tribes to the territory of the peoples north of the Drava, which, for them, had no economic, but strategic significance. Augustus formed a kind of alliance where the Romans would act as supervisors, and it was not until his death (14 AD) thatlegions would be moved over from South Pannonia.[54]
The second emperor Tiberius (r. 17 – 37 AD) founded multiplecoloniae in the province and developed its road network.[55] However, due to these land's unsuitability for cultivation, it was a hard task to persuade veterans to comply with settling there, and he had to silence a mutiny right when assuming power.[56] He sent his sonDrusus Julius Caesar to create tranquility and depose Maroboduus, who needed Roman support for his war againstArminius. This ultimately caused the rise ofVannius (20 AD), who ruled over an extended realm.[57]
It wasClaudius (r. 41 – 54 AD) who finished Pannonia's occupation and began to construct of the locallimes. Systematic integration into the Empire accompanied by the establishment of settled Roman life progressed subsequently.[58] In 50 AD, Vannius was overthrown byVangio and Sido, who enjoyed the emperor's support.[59] By this date, the nomadicSarmatian population of theIazyges had taken possession of theDanube–Tisza Interfluve, helping the Romans by being abuffer state against the dangerous Dacians.[60]
At first, the primary goal of the Roman administration was the conclusion of the barbarian conflicts outside the province. InNero's time (r. 54 – 68 AD) as many as 100,000 barbarians were moved from Pannonia to Moesia byPlautius Silvanus Aelianus, and 50,000 may have been settled in Pannonia byTampius Flavianus. During his important governorship, money began to circulate in the Barbaricum and the line of thelimes was stabilized.[58]
TheYear of the Four Emperors (69 AD) passed with peace in Pannonia. Flavianus declared forVespasian and led his legions to Italy againstVitellius.[61] Vespasian (r. 69 – 79 AD) invested greatly in the construction of thelimes.[58] Discarding the Augustan strategy where the legions' role was with maintaining order in their provinces, theFlavian emperors continually moved them to the border. This way they were prevented from interfering indomestic policy, while the conquests were already pacified.[62] Systematic circulation of money in the region situated north of the Drava shows that by this time Roman civilization had firmly taken root there.[58]
Domitian's (r. 81–96) emperorship saw expensive wars with the barbarians, as a result of which the military emphasis shifted to the Danube frontier.[63] At the end of 85 or the beginning of 86, the reemerging Dacians underDecebalus raidedMoesia, killing its governor and eradicating a legion. After a brief stay, Domitian leftCornelius Fuscus to deal with the situation. After clearing the province of raiders, Fuscus undertook a disastrous campaign and lost his life (86). Finally, in 88,Tettius Julianus defeated Decebalus and the sides agreed to make peace.[64] Vangio and Sido were most likely dead by now, the Marcomanni andQuadi denied vassal duties.[65] When the emperor's punitive expedition (partially sent through Dacian territory) was repelled in 89, he—despite the damages suffered—settled for mild terms with Decebalus, instead committing his forces elsewhere. In the same year, he held his triumphs over the Dacians andChatti, but not over the disloyal Danubian Germans. When the Romans started supporting theLugii against them, they made a pact with the Iazyges. This produced another war, almost completely unknown except for another catastrophe and destruction of a legion at the hands of the nomads.[66] In 92 or 93, he finished the war, but held only anovation, indicating he probably had further plans in Pannonia.[67]
We hear of war with the Danubian Germans again underNerva (r. 96–98).[68]
The divided Pannonia in the second century AD
Between 103 and 107,Trajan (r. 98–117) executed the division of the province intoPannonia Inferior andPannonia Superior. This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes.[69] While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained onemunicipium and one legion, virtually being a border zone.[70] Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent.[71]
The creation ofRoman Dacia had a great effect on Pannonia. InTrajan's Dacian Wars, the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retainOltenia where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolvedHadrian, then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that the nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and theApuseni Mountains, not incorporated into the new province.[72] However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with theParthian war, they joined forces with the relativeRoxolani and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor,Julius Quadratus Bassus fell victim. Hadrian (r. 117–138) traveled to the spot and investedMarcius Turbo as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome.[73] The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed.[74]
War with the Quadi broke out again in the last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces,Aelius Caesar successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over byHaterius Nepos, who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded withornamenta triumphalia.[75]
The coin of Pius (reverse), with the circumscription REX QUADIS DATUS
UnderAntoninus Pius's (r. 138–161) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not the ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment offoederatus relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened.[76]
Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule ofMarcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks.[77] Large-scale population movements inNorthern andEastern Europe related to theGoths highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests.[78] The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of theParthian war of Lucius Verus because they sent a whole legion and manyvexillationes away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until the dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions.[79] The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from theLombards andUbii, betweenBrigetio andArrabona. It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units.Cassius Dio tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior,Iallius Bassus to concede. This may have been the last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome.[80]
In 168, Marcus andVerus returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town ofOpitergium. The peak of theAntonine Plague in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in the death of governor of Moesia Superior and DaciaClaudius Fronto andpraetorian prefectMacrinius Vindex.Claudius Pompeianus and future-emperorPertinax returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172–173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite the winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns.[81]
The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimedCommodus (r. 177–192) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign byTarrutenius Paternus in 179 convinced the Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects.Valerius Maximianus, born in Pannonia, was an important general here.[82] Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after the death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge.[83]
Commodus vigorously started to strengthen thelimes with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting a third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader,Tigidius Perennis, achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188.[84]
During theYear of the Five Emperors (193), no attack was made on Pannonia. According toHerodian,Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) calmed the barbarian tribes via negotiations before marching off his troops to Italy and gaining the throne. In the coming years, the arrival of foreign groups led to new conflicts, but these were centered on Dacia and Pannonia only experienced collateral effects.[85] The Severans' rule was supported by the Pannonian military and other provinces of the collective "Illyricum" region, which became politically important.[86] In 202, a thorough visit to Pannonia by the imperial house was organized. Partly during this tour and throughout Severus' reign, the province benefited from many constructions. The road network was fully repaired, civilian and military buildings were inaugurated, military camps were improved and cities were protected with walls thus increasing their rank.[87]
Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; afterMarcus Aurelius, it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two coloniesAelia Mursia andAelia Aquincum byHadrian.
UnderDiocletian and his successors, a fourfold division of the country was made:[88]
Pannonia Prima in the northwest, with its capital in Savaria, it includedPannonia Superior and the major part of Central Pannonia between the Raba and Drava,
Pannonia Valeria in the northeast, with its capital inSopianae, it comprised the remainder of Central Pannonia between the Raba, Drava and Danube,
Diocletian also moved parts of today'sSlovenia out of Pannonia and incorporated them inNoricum.[89] In 324 AD,Constantine I enlarged the borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to thelimes that he created: theDevil's Dykes.[citation needed]
In the 4th–5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as theDiocese of Pannonia. It had its capital inSirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces ofDalmatia,Noricum Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense.[90]
In the 4th century, the Romans (especially underValentinian I) fortified the villas and relocated barbarians to the border regions. In 358 they won a great victory over theSarmatians, but raids didn't stop. In 401 theVisigoths fled to the province from theHuns, and the border guarding peoples fled toItalia from them, but were beaten byUldin in exchange for the transferring of Eastern Pannonia. In 433 Rome completely handed over the territory toAttila for the subjugation of theBurgundians attackingGaul.[91]
During theMigration Period in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia were ceded to theHuns in 433 byFlavius Aetius, themagister militum of theWestern Roman Empire.[92] After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers ofOstrogoths were settled by EmperorMarcian in the province asfoederati. TheEastern Roman Empire controlled southern parts of Pannonia in the 6th century, during the reign ofJustinian I. The Byzantine province ofPannonia with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia.
Afterwards, it was again invaded by theAvars in the 560s, and theSlavs, who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from the 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by theFranks, who used the name "Pannonia" to designate the newly formed frontier province, theMarch of Pannonia. The term Pannonia was also used for Slavicpolity likeLower Pannonia that was vassal to theFrankish Empire.
Through Roman influence, a dialect of Latin now calledPannonian Latin developed in the region; the several major political shifts would see it extinct around the 6th century.[93]
Aerial photography: Gorsium - Tác - HungaryAquincum, HungaryRuins of Imperial Palace in Sirmium
The native settlements consisted ofpagi (cantons) containing a number ofvici (villages), the majority of the large towns being ofRoman origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were:
The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared byProbus andGalerius. Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products wereoats andbarley, from which the inhabitants brewed a kind ofbeer named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the ancients, it is probable that it containediron andsilver mines.
Slavery held a less important role in Pannonia's economy than in earlier established provinces. Rich civilians had domestic slaves do the housework while soldiers who had been awarded with land had their slaves cultivate it. Slaves worked in workshops primarily in western cities for rich industrialist.[94] In Aquincum, they were freed in a short time.[95]
Pannonia had sanctuaries forJupiter,Juno andMinerva, official deities of empire, and also for old Celtic deities. In Aquincum there was one for the mother goddess. Theimperial cult was also present. In addition,Judaism and easternmystery cults also appeared, the latter centered aroundMithra,Isis,Anubis andSerapis.[95]
Christianity began to spread inside the province in the 2nd century. Its popularity didn't decrease even during the big persecutions in the late 3rd century. In the 4th century, basilicas and funeral chapels were built. We know of the Church ofSaint Quirinus in Savaria and numerous early Christian memorials from Aquincum, Sopianae, Fenékpuszta, and Arian Christian ones from Csopak.[95]
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