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Pan-Islamism (Arabic:الوحدة الإسلامية,romanized: al-Waḥdat al-Islāmiyya) is apolitical movement which advocates the unity ofMuslims under oneIslamic state, often acaliphate[1] or aninternational organization with Islamic principles. Historically, afterOttomanism, which aimed at the unity of all Ottoman citizens, Pan-Islamism was promoted in theOttoman Empire during the last quarter of the 19th century by SultanAbdul Hamid II[2] for the purpose of preventing secession movements of the Muslim peoples in the empire.
Pan-Islamism differentiates itself frompan-nationalistic ideologies, for examplePan-Arabism, by focusing on religion and notethnicity andrace. It sees theummah (Muslim community) as the focus of allegiance and mobilization, including theTawhid belief by the guidance ofQuran andSunnah's teachings.
The major leaders of the Pan-Islamist movement were the triad ofJamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839–1897),Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) andRashid Rida (1865–1935), who were active inanti-colonial efforts to confront European penetration of Muslim lands. They also sought to strengthen Islamic unity, which they believed to be the strongest force to mobilize Muslims against imperial domination.[3] FollowingIbn Saud'sconquest of the Arabian Peninsula, pan-Islamism would be bolstered across theIslamic world. During the second half of the 20th century, pan-Islamistscompeted againstleft-wing nationalist ideologies in theArab world such asNasserism andBa'athism.[4][5] At the height of theCold War in the 1960s and 1970s,Saudi Arabia and allied countries in the Muslim world led the Pan-Islamist struggle to fight the spread ofcommunist ideology and curtail the risingSoviet influence in the world.[6]
The Arabic termUmmah, which isfound in the Quran[7] andIslamic tradition,[8][9] has historically been used to denote the Muslims as a whole, regardless of race, ethnicity, etc.[10][9] This term has been used in a political sense by classical Islamic scholars e.g. such asal-Mawardi inAl-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah, where he discusses the contract of Imamate of the Ummah, "prescribed to succeed Prophethood" in protection of the religion and of managing the affairs of the world.[11][12][13][14]Al-Ghazali also talks aboutUmmah in a political sense[15][16] e.g. in his work, "Fadiah al-Batinyah wa Fadail al-Mustazhariyah".[17][18]
Fakhruddin al-Razi, who also talks about Ummah in a political sense, is quoted as saying the following:[19][15]
The world is a garden, whose waterer is the dynasty, which is the authority. The guardian of this authority is the Shari'ah and Shari'ah is also the policy which preserves the kingdom; the kingdom is the city which the army brings into existence; the army is guaranteed by wealth; wealth is acquired by the subjects (Ummah) who are made servants via justice; justice is the axis of well being of the world.
The ideology takes as its model theearly years of Islam – the reign ofMuhammad andthe early caliphate – especially duringIslamic golden age, as it is commonly held that during these years theMuslim world was strong, unified, and free from corruption.[20]
Many scholars assert that the doctrines of pan-Islamism could be observed as early as during the era ofIslamic Iberia,Emirate of Sicily, theGunpowder Empires (Ottoman,Safavid andMughal Empires) and several Muslim sultanates and kingdoms, despite the presence and employment of non-Muslim subjects by Muslim powers.[21] During the 18th century, multiple movements for puritanicalIslamic renewal would emerge. Amongst these, the revivalist movements of three leading religious reformers –Shah Wali Allah of Delhi (1702–1763), theArabianMuhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), and theNigerianUthman dan Fodio (1755–1816) – are widely regarded as the precursors of the modern-era Pan-Islamist thought. Despite their calls for puritanicalreform, these movements were not politically concerned with the international situation of theMuslim world, and had not elaborated comprehensive pan-Islamist programmes to combat theWestern threat. Since they did not call for the revival of an internationalIslamic entity, their ideas and impact were limited to the local regional contexts ofWest Africa, Arabia, andSouth Asia.[22]
In spite of their diversity, these 18th century Muslim reformers were united in their condemnation of declining morality and calls for the revival of scripture-based piety. Inspired by these movements, Islamic reformers at the turn of the 19th century adopted novel strategies for overcoming the crisis faced by the Muslim world by adapting to the fast-paced transformation of its era. Their proposed approaches now oscillated between an open admiration for the technology-mediated Western ideology of societal progress and a clear rejection of it on the grounds of the axiomatic superiority of an idealized Islamic culture, rooted in Scripturalist injunctions. Two major scholars of earlycolonial Egypt 'Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (d. 1825) andRifa'a al-Tahtawi (d. 1872) represented these intellectual trends. While Rifa'a al-Tahtawi exemplified the former, 'Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti represented the latter, Scriptural-oriented approach.[23]
In the modern era, Pan-Islamism was championed byJamal al-Din al-Afghani who sought unity amongMuslims to resist colonial occupation of Muslim lands. Afghani feared that nationalism would divide the Muslim world and believed that Muslim unity was more important than ethnic identity.[24] Although sometimes described as "liberal",[25] al-Afghani did not advocate constitutional government but simply envisioned "the overthrow of individual rulers who were lax or subservient to foreigners, and their replacement by strong and patriotic men."[26] In a review of the theoretical articles of his Paris-based newspaper there was nothing "favoring political democracy or parliamentarianism," according to his biographer.[26]
While Afghani was an advocate ofrevolution from above, his student'Abduh believed in revolution from below, through religious and educational reforms. Despite al-Afghani's tremendous influence on 'Abduh, the latter eventually would distance himself from Afghani's political path. He instead focused on gradual efforts in the field of education, which he viewed as more effective instruments for reform. He criticised Afghani and pan-Islamist intellectuals for their political activities. Afghani had bitter arguments with Abduh and regularly accused him of timidity and dispiritedness.[27]
Islamic juristMuhammad Rashid Rida – a student of Abduh and Afghani – on the other hand, was an avowedanti-imperialist and an exponent of a puritanical revolution, inspired by his nostalgia for the early eras of Islam. According to Rida, the state-sponsored scholars neglected the revival of early Islamic traditions in theMuslimUmmah. He believed that the unification of the Islamic community would only be possible through the restoration of anIslamic caliphate which implements theSharia (Islamic law). His influential Islamic journalAl-Manar promotedanti-British revolt, as well as Islamic revivalism based on the tenets ofSalafiyya. Positioning himself as the successor to the pan-Islamist activism of Afghani and 'Abduh; Rida called for a pan-Islamic project based on revival of the Islamic caliphate led byArabs and thereformation of Muslims.[28] During the 1920s, Rida formulated the comprehensiveIslamic state doctrine in his famous treatiseal-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-'Uzma ("The Caliphate or the Exalted Imamate") in which he called upon Muslims to strive to build a political system based on faith; rather thannationalism. He opposed the rising embracal of Western ideas amongstMuslims, arguing that only a return to Islam would restore the rightful position of Muslims in the modern age. Pan-Islamic networks, led by Rashid Rida and his associates, played a central role in later development ofIslamist movements.[29][30][31]
Rida's Salafiyya movement advocated for pan-Islamist solidarity which involved socio-political campaigning to establishSharia (Islamic laws). FollowingWorld War I, Rida and his disciples became the biggest adversaries ofsecularists andnationalists; and vehemently attacked all forms ofdemocratic ideas.[32] Articulating his Pan-Islamist vision, Rashid Rida wrote inAl-Manar in 1902:
"In sum, what I mean by Islamic unity is that the leaders (ahl al-Hal wal-'aqd) among the scholars and notables should meet and compile a book of ordinances which is based on the deeply-rooted fundamentals of theDivine Law, agrees with the needs of the time, is easy to use, and is free of disagreement (khilaf). The Supreme Imam then orders the rulers of Muslims to apply it (al-'amal bihi)"[33]
In order to judge the rising importance of the Pan-Islamist movement during these years,Lothrop Stoddard in his 1921 bookThe New World of Islam looked at the growth in the Pan-Islamic press, writing that "in 1900 there were in the whole Islamic world not more than 200 propagandist journals", as he puts it, but "by 1906 there were 500, while in 1914 there were well over 1000."[34]
After theAbolition of Caliphate in 1924, Pan-Islamism mobilized Muslim masses of both traditionalist and reform movements inIslam, inspired by the ideas of Rashid Rida. TheReformist movements led by Rida, would become more fundamentalist and literalist; emphasizing adherence to the idealised era of theSalaf and attempt to revive lost traditions.[35] Rashid Rida's socio-political views symbolised the convergence of the doctrines of thereformist,Salafist and pan-Islamist movements.[36] During the 1920s, Rida and his Salafi disciples established theYoung Men's Muslim Association (YMMA); an influential Islamist youth organisation that spearheaded attacks againstliberal trends andWestern culture. This provided favourable conditions for the growth of various Islamist revolutionary movements.[32]
The evolution of the early Pan-Islamist movement in thepost-colonial world was strongly associated withIslamism. Leading Islamists such asSayyid Qutb,[37]Abul Ala Maududi, and AyatollahKhomeini all stressed their belief that a return to traditionalSharia law would make Islam united and strong again. Extremism within Islam goes back to the 7th century to theKharijites.[better source needed] From their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach toTakfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death.[38][39][40]
In the period ofde-colonialism followingWorld War II,Arab nationalism overshadowed Islamism which denounced nationalism as un-Islamic. In the Arab world secularpan-Arab parties –Baath andNasserist parties – had offshoots in almost every Arab country, and took power inEgypt,Libya,Iraq andSyria. Islamists suffered severe repression; its major thinkerSayyid Qutb, was imprisoned, underwent torture and was later executed.[41] Egyptian presidentNasser considered the idea of Muslim unity as a threat toArab nationalism.[42][better source needed]
In the 1950s,Pakistan's government championed Muslim cooperation like many other Muslim countries however Pakistan's efforts were complicated with its involvement in Baghdad pact and pro-western foreign diplomacy in light of the Palestine-Israel conflict, however later relations would be much better. Many Muslim countries suspected that Pakistan was aspiring to leadership of the Muslim world to in foreword help western powers in relations with other Muslim states.[43][better source needed]
Following the defeat of Arab armies in theSix-Day War, Islamism and Pan-Islam began to reverse their relative position of popularity withnationalism and pan-Arabism. Political events in the Muslim world in the late 1960s convinced many Muslim states to shift their earlier ideas and respond favourably to Pakistan's goal of Muslim unity. Nasser abandoned his opposition to a pan-Islamic platform and such developments facilitated the first summit conference of Muslim heads of state in Rabat in 1969. This conference was eventually transformed into a permanent body calledOrganisation of Islamic Conference.[44]
In 1979 theIranian Revolution oustedShahMohammad Reza Pahlavi from power. Ten years later in 1989; theAfghan mujahideen, with major support from theUnited States, would successfullyforce the Soviet Union from Afghanistan. Pan-IslamicSunni Muslims such asMaududi and theMuslim Brotherhood, embraced the creation of a new caliphate, at least as a long-term project.[45] Shia leader Ruhollah Khomeini[Note 1] also embraced a united Islamic supra-state[Note 2] but saw it led by a (Shia) religious scholar offiqh (afaqih).[52]
These events galvanised Islamists the world over and heightened their popularity with the Muslim public. Throughout the Middle-East, and in particularEgypt, the various branches of theMuslim Brotherhood have significantly challenged the secular nationalist or monarchical Muslim governments. InPakistan theJamaat-e-Islami enjoyed popular support especially since the formation of theMMA, and in Algeria theFIS was expected to win the cancelled elections in 1992. Since the collapse of theSoviet Union,Hizb-ut-Tahrir has emerged as a Pan-Islamist force inCentral Asia and in the last five years has developed some support from theArab world.[53]
A recent advocate for Pan-Islamism was lateTurkish prime minister and founder ofMillî Görüş movementNecmettin Erbakan, who championed the Pan-Islamic Union (İslam Birliği) idea and took steps in his government toward that goal by establishing theDeveloping 8 Countries (or D8, as opposed toG8) in 1996 with Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria and Bangladesh. His vision was gradual unity of Muslim nations through economic and technologic collaboration similar to theEU with a single monetary unit (İslam Dinarı),[54] joint aerospace and defense projects, petrochemical technology development, regional civil aviation network and a gradual agreement to democratic values. Although the organization met at presidential and cabinet levels and moderate collaboration projects continue to date, the momentum was instantly lost whenthe so-called Post-Modern Coup of February 28, 1997, eventually took down Erbakan's government.[55]
International organisations:
History:
Three leading renewal advocates— Shah Wali Allah of Delhi (1702–1763), the Najdi Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703–1792), and the Nigerian Uthman dan Fodio (1755–1816) – are often considered originators of pan-Islamism.... these disparate three were not especially concerned with the global situation of Islam or an imagined Muslim world. They didn't respond to European empires encroaching in the Indian Ocean and on African coasts. They didn't elaborate pan-Islamic ideas about the Western threat or attempt to formulate an essentialist global Islam. They also did not have any global impact.... their ideas and influence should be understood in their particular contexts of West Africa, Arabia, and South Asia
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