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ThePamir Mountains are a range of mountains betweenCentral Asia andSouth Asia. They are located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely theTian Shan, theKarakoram, theKunlun, theHindu Kush, and theHimalayas. They are among the world's highest mountains.
Pamir as seen from the map, as well as theAmu Darya river which rises from the Pamir Mountains north of theHindu Kush and theHelmand River which is the longest river in the entire country of Afghanistan.
The Pamir region is home to several different cultures, peoples and languages. In some of these languages, the Pamir Mountains are referred by different names.
According to Middleton and Thomas, "pamir" is also a geological term.[7] A pamir is a flat plateau orU-shaped valley surrounded by mountains. It forms when a glacier or ice field melts leaving a rocky plain. A pamir lasts until erosion forms soil and cuts down normal valleys. This type of terrain is found in the east and north of theWakhan,[8] and the east and south of Gorno-Badakhshan, as opposed to the valleys and gorges of the west. Pamirs are used for summer pasture.[7][8]
The three highest mountains in the Pamirs core areIsmoil Somoni Peak (known from 1932 to 1962 as Stalin Peak, and from 1962 to 1998 as Communism Peak), 7,495 m (24,590 ft);Ibn Sina Peak (still unofficially known as Lenin Peak), 7,134 m (23,406 ft); andPeak Korzhenevskaya (Russian:Пик Корженевская,Pik Korzhenevskoi), 7,105 m (23,310 ft).[9] In the Eastern Pamirs, China'sKongur Tagh is the highest at 7,649 m (25,095 ft).
Among the significant peaks of the Pamir Mountains are the following:[10]
Remark: The summits of the Kongur and Muztagata Group are in some sources counted as part of theKunlun, which would make Pik Ismoil Somoni the highest summit of the Pamir.
There are manyglaciers in the Pamir Mountains, including the 77 km (48 mi) longVanch-Yakh Glacier, the longest in the formerUSSR and the longest glacier outside thepolar regions.[11] Approximately 12,500 km2 (ca. 10%)[12] of the Pamirs are glaciated. Glaciers in the Southern Pamirs are retreating rapidly. Ten percent of annual runoff is supposed to originate from retreating glaciers in the Southern Pamirs.[12] In the North-Western Pamirs, glaciers have almost stablemass balances.[12]
The East-Pamir, in the centre of which themassifs of Mustagh Ata (7620 m) and Kongur Tagh (Qungur Shan, 7578, 7628 or 7830 m) are situated, shows from the western margin of the Tarim Basin an east–west extension of c. 200 km. Its north–south extension from King Ata Tagh up to the northwest Kunlun foothills amounts to c.170 km. Whilst the up to 21 km long current valley glaciers are restricted to mountain massifs exceeding 5600 m in height, during the last glacial period the glacier ice covered the high plateau with its set-up highland relief, continuing west of Mustagh Ata and Kongur. From this glacier area an outlet glacier has flowed down to the north-east through the Gez valley up to c.1850 m asl (meters above sea level) and thus as far as to the margin of the Tarim basin. This outlet glacier received inflow from the Kaiayayilak glacier from the Kongur north flank. From the north-adjacent Kara Bak Tor (Chakragil, c. 6800 or 6694 m) massif, the Oytag valley glacier in the same exposition flowed also down up to c. 1850 m asl. At glacial times the glacier snowline(ELA[B]) as altitude limit between glacier nourishing area and ablation zone, was about 820 to 1250 metres lower than it is today.[14][15] Under the condition of comparable proportions of precipitation there results from this a glacial depression of temperature of at least 5 to 7.5 °C.
Expedition in 1982 toTartu Ülikool 350 Peak, which was considered to be the highest unreached peak in the territory of former Soviet Union at the time.
Thelapis lazuli found in Egyptian tombs is thought to come from the Pamir area in Badakhshan province of Afghanistan.[7] About 138 BCEZhang Qian reached theFergana Valley northwest of the Pamirs.Ptolemy vaguely describes a trade route through the area. From about 600 CE, Buddhist pilgrims travelled on both sides of the Pamirs to reach India from China. In 747 a Tang army was on the Wakhan River. There are various Arab and Chinese reports.Marco Polo may have travelled along thePanj River. In 1602Bento de Goes travelled fromKabul toYarkand and left a meager report on the Pamirs. In 1838 LieutenantJohn Wood reached the headwaters of thePamir River. From about 1868 to 1880, a number of Indians in the British service secretly explored the Panj area. In 1873 the British and Russians agreed to an Afghan frontier along the Panj River. From 1871 to around 1893 several Russian military-scientific expeditions mapped out most of the Pamirs (Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko,Nikolai Severtzov, CaptainDmitry Putyata and others. Later cameNikolai Korzhenevskiy). Several local groups asked for Russian protection from Afghan raiders. The Russians were followed by a number of non-Russians includingNey Elias,George Littledale,the Earl of Dunmore,Wilhelm Filchner andLord Curzon who was probably the first to reach the Wakhan source of theOxus River. In 1891 the Russians informedFrancis Younghusband that he was on their territory and later escorted a Lieutenant Davidson out of the area ('Pamir Incident'). In 1892 a battalion of Russians under Mikhail Ionov entered the area and camped near the presentMurghab. In 1893 they built a proper fort there (Pamirskiy Post). In 1895 their base was moved toKhorog facing the Afghans.
In the early 1980s, a deposit ofgemstone-qualityclinohumite was discovered in the Pamir Mountains. It was the only such deposit known until the discovery of gem-quality material in theTaymyr region ofSiberia, in 2000.
In December 2009, theNew York Times featured articles on the possibilities for tourism in the Pamir area of Tajikistan.[18][19] 2013 proved to be the most successful year ever for tourism in the region and tourism development continues to be the fastest growing economic sector.
Historically, the Pamir Mountains were considered a strategic trade route betweenKashgar andKokand on theNorthern Silk Road, a prehistoric trackway, and have been subject to numerous territorial conquests. The Northern Silk Road (about 2,600 km (1,616 mi) in length) connected the ancient Chinese capitalChang'an with Kashgar over the Pamir Mountains towards the west, and from there continued to ancientParthia.[20] In the 20th century, these mountains have been the setting for theTajikistan Civil War, border disputes betweenChina and the Soviet Union, establishment of military bases by the US, Russia, and India,[21] and renewed interest in trade development and resource exploration.[22][23] The Chinese government says it has resolved most of the disputes it had with Central Asian countries.[24]
^According to theBig Soviet Encyclopedia "The question of the natural boundaries of Pamir is debatable. Normally Pamir is regarded as covering the territory from Trans-Alay Range to the north, Sarykol Range to the east, Lake Zorkul, Pamir River, and the upper reaches of Panj River to the south, and the meridional section of the Panj valley to the west; to the north-west Pamir includes the eastern parts of Peter the Great and Darvaz ranges."
^Arnaud, N. O.; Brunel, M.; Cantagrel, J. M.; Tapponnier, P. (1993). "High cooling and denudation rates at Kongur Shan, Eastern Pamir (Xinjiang, China)".Tectonics.12 (3):1335–1346.doi:10.1029/93TC00767.
^Li, Daoyuan.水經注 [Commentary on the Water Classic] (in Chinese). Vol. 2 – viaWikisource.蔥嶺在敦煌西八千里，其山高大，上生蔥，故曰蔥嶺也。(quoting from the "西河舊事") The Onion Range is 8,000Li west ofDunhuangin Uzbek Language "Pamir Tog'i". Its mountains are high and onions grow on them, therefore it is called Onion Range.
^abcThis section is based on the book by R. Middleton and H. Thomas: Robert Middleton and Huw Thomas, 'Tajikistan and the High Pamirs', Odyssey Books, 2008
^Tajikistan: 15 Years of Independence, statistical yearbook, Dushanbe, 2006, p. 8, in Russian.
^"Dominance".www.8000ers.com. Retrieved6 April 2010.
^In the Karakoram Mountains,Siachen Glacier is 76 km long,Biafo Glacier is 67 km long, andBaltoro is 63 km long. TheBruggen or Pio XI Glacier in southern Chile is 66 km long. Kyrgyzstan'sSouth Inylchek (Enylchek) Glacier is 60.5 km in length. Measurements are from recent imagery, generally with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping for reference as well as the 1990Orographic Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 and 2, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich.
^Kuhle, M. (1997):New findings concerning the Ice Age (LGM) glacier cover of the East Pamir, of the Nanga Parbat up to the Central Himalaya and of Tibet, as well as the Age of the Tibetan Inland Ice. Tibet and High Asia (IV). Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology. Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene. GeoJournal, 42, (2–3), pp. 87–257.
^Kuhle, M. (2004):The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) glacier cover in High- and Central Asia. Accompanying text to the mapwork in hand with detailed references to the literature of the underlying empirical investigations. Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. (Eds.). Extent and Chronology of Glaciations, Vol. 3 (Latin America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica). Amsterdam, Elsevier B.V., pp. 175–199.
^George Nathaniel Curzon; The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, 1968, p 184
^Benjamin Walker - Hinduism; Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology:Purāṇas in Translation, 1969, p 56
^Jagdish Lal Shastri, Arnold Kunst, G. P. Bhatt, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare - Oriental literature; Journal of the K.R. Cama Oriental Institute, 1928, p 38
^Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal - History; Geographical Concepts in Ancient India, 1967, p 50
^Bechan Dube - India; Geographical Data in the EarlyPurāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 2
^Dr M. R. Singh - India; Studies in the Proto-history of India, 1971, p 17
^Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.).India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 78.
Leitner, G. W. (1890).Dardistan in 1866, 1886 and 1893: Being an Account of the History, Religions, Customs, Legends, Fables and Songs of Gilgit, Chilas, Kandia (Gabrial) Yasin, Chitral, Hunza, Nagyr and other parts of the Hindukush. With a supplement to the second edition of The Hunza and Nagyr Handbook. And an Epitome of Part III of the author's "The Languages and Races of Dardistan". First Reprint 1978. Manjusri Publishing House, New Delhi.
Murray, Charles (1894).The Pamirs; being a narrative of a year's expedition on horseback and on foot through Kashmir, western Tibet, Chinese Tartary, and Russian Central Asia. J. Murray. (Vol. I andII)
Wood, John, (1872).A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.
Gordon, T. E. (1876).The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
Cobbold, Ralph Patteson (1900).Innermost Asia: travel & sport in the Pamirs. W. Heinemann.
Strong, Anna Louise. (1930).The Road to the Grey Pamir. Robert M. McBride & Co., New York.
Toynbee, Arnold J. (1961).Between Oxus and Jumna. London. Oxford University Press.
Slesser, Malcolm (1964).Red Peak: A Personal Account of the British-Soviet Expedition. Coward McCann.
Wang, Miao (1983).From the Pamirs to Beijing : tracing Marco Polo's northern route. HK China Tourism Press.
Tilman, H. W. (1983). "Two Mountains and a River" part ofThe Severn Mountain Travel Books. Diadem, London.
Waugh, Daniel C. (1999). "The 'Mysterious and Terrible Karatash Gorges': Notes and Documents on the Explorations by Stein and Skrine."The Geographical Journal, Vol. 165, No. 3. (Nov., 1999), pp. 306–320.
Horsman, S. (2002).Peaks, Politics and Purges: the First Ascent of Pik Stalin in Douglas, E. (ed.) Alpine Journal 2002 (Volume 107), The Alpine Club & Ernest Press, London, pp 199–206.
Gecko-Maps (2004).The Pamirs. 1:500.000 – A tourist map of Gorno-Badkshan-Tajikistan and background information on the region. Verlag "Gecko-Maps", Switzerland (ISBN3-906593-35-5)
Dagiev, Dagikhudo, and Carole Faucher, eds. (2018).Identity, History and Trans-nationality in Central Asia: The Mountain Communities of Pamir. Routledge.
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