Museo Nazionale Romano
Palazzo Massimo alle Terme

The entrance to the museum
Location within Rome
Established	1995
Location	Rome,Italy
Coordinates	41°54′05″N12°29′54″E / 41.901311°N 12.498361°E /41.901311; 12.498361
Type	Archaeology museum
Director	Stéphane Verger
Website	Official website

ThePalazzo Massimo alle Terme is the main of the four sites of theRoman National Museum, along with the original site of theBaths of Diocletian, which currently houses theepigraphic and protohistoric section,Palazzo Altemps, home to theRenaissance collections of ancient sculpture, and theCrypta Balbi, home to the early medieval collection.^[1]

It is located in theEsquilinodistrict, nearTermini Station.

In 2013, the museum circuit of theRoman National Museum was the 21st most visited Italian state site, with 247,795 visitors and a total gross income of 909,016.50 euros.^[2]

Palazzo Massimo was rebuilt between 1883 and 1886 by architect Camillo Pistrucci on the Villa Montalto-Peretti as the site of a college for theJesuits, which remained there until 1960.^[3][4]

After ups and downs it was purchased by the state in 1981 and restored,^[5] based on a design by architect Costantino Dardi. This was made possible by funding from a special law for the protection of the Roman archaeological heritage.^[4]

The building has four floors and an underground one, much of which is devoted to the display of the collections, as well as providing a series of offices, a library, and a conference room.^[4]

The museum building was opened in 1995 (when only the ground floor was opened) and completed in 1998 with the opening of the first and second floors in addition to the basement.^[4][6]

The exhibition area occupies four of the floors from which the building consists, the other rooms being reserved for offices of theSoprintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma. The museum layout is divided into subsections that illustrate the most important moments in the artistic production of ancient Rome. The museum houses the "ancient art section" with figurative works from the laterepublican,imperial and late antique periods on the ground floor, first and second floors (including works of art from the great residences of thesenatorial order, withGreek originals brought to Rome in ancient times) as well as a "numismatics andgoldsmithing section" on aspects of theRoman economy in the basement.^[4][5]

• 
  Athena, from Villa Carpegna on the Aurelia (Roman copy from classical Greek original)

The ground floor houses masterpieces ofRoman art, from the late Republican age (with works belonging to the ruling classes of the 2nd-1st centuries B.C.), to the time of theJulio-Claudian dynasty. Immediately after the ticket office one encounters a colossal statue of a seated female deity. It comes from the slopes of theAventine and is composed of numerous types of ancient colored marbles, using a technique highly prized byRoman sculptors.^[4] This statue is from theAugustan age and has been restored asMinerva, whose face has been remade in plaster in the likeness of the Athena Carpegna. According to recent studies, however, it seems that the statue depictedMagna Mater-Cybele, an ancientAnatolian deity whose main center of her worship wasPessinus inPhrygia and who, beginning in theSecond Punic War, began protecting the Romans.^[4]

According to the oracles of theSibylline Books, the introduction of theMagna Mater cult was a precondition for finally achieving the expulsion of the Carthaginian enemy from Italy. In April 204 B.C., the black stone of Pessinus reachedOstia and was delivered toPublius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, cousin ofPublius Scipio and son ofGnaeus Scipio.

Floor plan of the ground floor of the Roman National Museum at the Palazzo Massimo

The "Gallery I" displays numerous anonymous male and female portraits. The arrangement evokes a gallery of ancestors, based on what really happened in the dwellings and funerary monuments ofancient Rome. These portraits include that of an elderly woman (fromPalombara Sabina)^[7] and of a mid-1st century B.C. priest ofIsis (found in theTiber), characterized by a shaved head and a typical vertical scar.^[8] The stern and strong-willed portrait proves the spread of the Egyptian cult in Rome, often opposed by thenobilitas, eventually imposed in the capital by the association of Isis with the goddessFortuna.^[9]

• 
  Bust of a priest ofIsis (h. 33 cm; datable to the first decades of the 1st century BC).^[8]
• 
  Male portrait of 75-50 B.C. fromPalestrina
• 
  Portrait of a bearded man
• 
  Portrait of a young bearded man
• 
  Portrait of a middle-aged man
• 
  Male portrait datable to 40 BC.
• 
  Male portrait from the late 1st century BC.
• 
  Male portrait from Nemi (Valle Giardino), in Luna marble, (30 BC).
• 
  Male portrait (second half of the 1st century BC).

• 
  Portrait of elderly woman (fromPalombara Sabina; h. 32 cm; late 1st century BC).^[7]
• 
  Portrait of an elderly woman
• 
  Portrait of a young woman
• 
  Portrait of a girl
• 
  Portrait of a young woman
• 
  Portrait of a woman

Also in "Gallery I," one finds the center of a mosaic floor of a Roman villa (Tor Bella Monaca, Rome), which depicted an episode from theArgonauts myth, in whichHylas, the young companion of Hercules, draws water and a Nymph is about to drag him into the spring.^[9]

• 
  Central panel of the floor mosaic of a Roman villa, withHylas and the nymphs (late 2nd century BC - early imperial period)

"Room I" contains a series of portraits of the ruling class (nobilitas) from the Republican period (prior to theCaesarian era). They follow two main trends: on the one hand those faithful to the realism of the Italic tradition, and on the other those that were influenced by Hellenism. Among the latter is the virile portrait from the Via Barberini in Rome and depicts a general of the first half/end of the second century BCE, identified by some scholars asLucius Aemilius Paullus, the victor ofPydna (168 BCE),^[9] by others asTitus Quinctius Flamininus, the victor ofCynoscephalae.^[10]The masterpiece of late republican portraiture is the statue of the so-called "General of Tivoli" (from the sanctuary of Hercules the Victor, from the beginning of the first century BCE). The portrait is among those faithful to the realism of the Italic tradition.^[9][11]

• 
  Male portrait in Hellenistic style that some scholars have identified asAemilius Paulus,^[9] others asFlaminius.^[10]
• 
  The "General of Tivoli" (detail of the head)^[9][11]

This room also contains theFasti Antiates, i.e., two frescoed panels found near Nero's Villa atAnzio, dating to the period 88 to 55 BCE and containing theRoman calendar ofNuma Pompilius, which preceded thereform ofGaius Julius Caesar, includingRoman festivals and a list of the main magistracies, such as that ofconsuls andcensors from the period 173 to 67 BCE.^[9]

• 
  Fasti Antiates
• 
  Reconstruction of theFasti Antiates

In "Room II," the exhibition continues chronologically and shows images between theCaesarian andAugustan ages, when alongside the realist tendencies are found the new classicist one, especially sought by Octavian Augustus.^[12]

Also included in the "room" is a togated funerarystele, in which the representation of a ring in the left hand probably indicates membership in theequestrian order. This kind of funerary relief was also used by the freedmen, a now emerging class. The funerary relief of the Rabirii, which came from theAppian Way, shows three figures, including a pair of freedmen (Caius Rabirius Hermodorus andRabiria Demaris), related to their patron, a certainGaius Rabirius Postumus, a knight of the Caesarian age, defended byCicero in his workPro Rabirius Postumus. The third figure portrays a certainUsia Prima (who may represent a descendant of the couple and was added in the first century CE) and depicts her as a priestess of Isis.^[12]

Also in this room can be found epigraphic fragments of a calendar, theFasti Praenestini, affixed inPraeneste, and illustrating an Augustan-era calendar in which Caesar's reform of the 365-day year had by then taken effect.^[12][13]

• 
  Fasti Prenestini
• 
  Detail of theFasti Prenestini

On display in "Gallery II" are aloricate acephalous statue (in military garb) from the Antonine age and two altars dedicated to imperial worship.^[12]

• 
  Loricated acephalous statue of the Antonine period
• 
  Detail of the loricate statue

The room is temporarily being refurbished.^[14]

"Room IV" collects a series of marble and bronze portraits during the period of theJulio-Claudian dynasty, starting with the realistic portrait of Gaius Octavius, father ofOctavian Augustus, as well as the latter's youthful portrait, which is influenced byHellenistic sculpture. There are also a series of classicistic portraits of his possible heirs (fromDrusus the Elder, toGermanicus Julius Caesar), to his royal successors (Tiberius andCaligula).^[12]

• 
  Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63 - 12 B.C.), right-hand man of Octavian Augustus and his son-in-law
• 
  A youngTiberius (42 BC - 37 AD).
• 
  Germanicus Julius Caesar (15 B.C.-A.D. 19), designated heir ofTiberius
• 
  Drusus the Younger (13 B.C. - 23 A.D.), son of Tiberius
• 
  Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 B.C.-A.D. 14), son of Agrippa andJulia (daughter of Augustus)
• 
  Caligula (12 - 41 d.C.)

The image of the imperial family also profoundly influenced that of private citizens, whose statues adopted not only the same hairstyles as the variousprincepes, but also the same physiognomies.^[12] Women's fashion of that period was also dictated by the princesses of the dynasty, such asOctavia (Octavian's sister), Livia, Antonia and the two Agrippines.^[15]

• 
  Octavia the Younger (69 - 11 B.C.)
• 
  Livia Drusilla (58 B.C. - 29 A.D.), wife ofAugustus
• 
  Livia Drusilla (second portrait)
• 
  Agrippina the Younger (15 - 59 AD).
• 
  Poppaea Sabina (30 - 65 AD), second wife ofNero
• 
  Claudia Octavia (40 - 62 AD).

Also in the room is a statue of a young girl fromOstia, depicted as the goddessArtemis, a symbol of hunting, animals and archery, as well as being the goddess of female initiations.^[15]

• 
  A young girl represented as Artemis (Cisarii baths in Ostia)

The portraits of theJulio-Claudian dynasty in "room IV" are complemented by others in "room V," as well as the statue known asAugustus of Via Labicana, a portrait of EmperorAugustus aspontifex maximus, found in what was Livia's villa nearVia Labicana.^[15]

• 
  Via Labicana Augustus
• 
  Detail of the face
• 
  Detail of the half-bust
• 
  Detail of the toga
• 
  Detail of the base

There is also a marble altar dedicated toMars andVenus from ancientOstia. This altar is dated to the first half of the second century CE and commemorated the ancestor gods of the Roman people: the former as the father ofRomulus, the latter as the mother ofAeneas, as reflected in the image ofRomulus and Remus suckled by the she-wolf, carved on one of the facades of the altar.^[15]

• 
  Altar to Mars and Venus
• 
  Side with the depiction of thefounding of Rome, theshe-wolf,Romulus and Remus
• 
  Side with Amorini playing with the weapons of Mars
• 
  Side with playful cherubs playing with the chariot of Venus

Also in "room V" is part of the historical frieze of the Basilica Aemilia in theRoman Forum. It was found in numerous fragments during various excavations. It is 0.76 meters high. The frieze is an early example of the reception ofHellenistic models in the Roman sphere, predating the spread ofNeo-Atticism, which flattened Roman art toward a colder and more academic reproduction ofclassical Greek art models. The dating of the work is highly controversial, oscillating between theSullan-Caesarian and Augustan ages. However, opinions regarding the later periods are discardable on the basis of stylistic elements, making a time span between the early and late first century B.C. likely.^[15]

The frieze originally measured more than one hundred meters, where an account of the entire Roman history starting from theprimordia was depicted.^[15]

• 
  Historical frieze of the Basilica Emilia:foundation of a city (Rome?), represented by the construction of walls and a gate, flanked by its female personification^[16]
• 
  Frieze of the Basilica Aemilia: scene of a battle against theSabines orGauls.^[16]
• 
  Frieze of the Basilica Aemilia: the punishment ofTarpeia, buried under a pile of weapons before the Sabine kingTitus Tatius^[16]

Finally, there is a painted frieze, coming from theEsquiline and found in 1875 in the area of thePorta Maggiore square, which depicted a small columbarium of the powerful family ofTitus Statilius Taurus. The scenes depicted are 38 cm high and are bordered by a dark red band and divided into several episodes, starting withAeneas, the meeting betweenMars andRhea Silvia, and the birth of the twins,Romulus and Remus.^[17]

• 
  Fresco from the Esquiline columbarium with the scene of the founding ofAlba Longa^[17]

From here on, "Gallery III" begins a series of copies of Greek portraits. One finds busts of philosophers such asSocrates, of poets such asHesiod, of rulers such asPhilip V of Macedon, as well as athletes such as the Boxer from the villa at Genazzano.^[16] There is also a fine gilded bronze portrait of Alexander the Great, recognizable by the characteristic arrangement of the hair on his forehead. The work belongs to the imperial era, which was also extremely popular in the Roman world.^[16]

• 
  The philosopherSocrates^[16] (found inPiazza Venezia; inv. 1.236)^[18]
• 
  The philosopherEpicurus
• 
  Bust of the Greek historian,Herodotus
• 
  Portrait of the poetDiphilus
• 
  Bust ofPhilip V of Macedon^[16]
• 
  Bust of a Greek strategist
• 
  Head ofAlexander the Great^[16] (fromTivoli; Temple of Hercules; inv. 124.507)^[19]

The arrangement of the portraits one behind the other is reminiscent of the galleries of illustrious Greeks that often furnished Romandomus, used asexempla (examples of behavior).^[16]

There is also along the gallery a depiction of a cat catching a bird (upper part) and two ducks in the lower part, from a villa along theVia Ardeatina (first century B.C.) with very small tiles (opus vermiculatum). The subject and technique are in the Hellenistic tradition.^[16]

• 
  Central panel of a floor mosaic with a cat and two ducks

On display in "Room VI" are two works of Greek art that decorated theHorti Sallustiani, a property that was first owned byGaius Julius Caesar, then byGaius Sallustius Crispus, and finally by the imperial family, as evidence of the Roman civilization's love for Hellenic art. Many of the masterpieces found in the area, and which came from theLudovisi collection, are now on display at the Roman National Museum inPalazzo Altemps. A couple, however, are displayed in this room of the Palazzo Massimo.^[16] They are:

• Niobid from theHorti Sallustiani, found during excavations in 1906, in a cubicle 11 meters below ground level, perhaps hidden to protect it from the destructive fury of thebarbarians during the invasions of the fifth century AD. It depicts one ofNiobe's daughters in the act of falling to the ground, having been wounded by an arrow lodged between her shoulder blades, and which she tries in vain to extract. The work is original and can be ascribed to the fifth century B.C.E., as it is believed^[20] to belong to or otherwise be analogous to the figures in thepediment of the temple of Apollo atEretria, which were transferred to Rome at the behest ofAugustus.^[21] TheNiobid from the Horti Sallustiani would thus be one of the very many works brought to Rome fromGreece asspoils of war, which played such a large part in the evolution of the taste and style of Roman artistic production.^[16]
• Part of an original statue ofPeplophoros, depicting a maiden wearing apeplos (the heavy Doric female costume, which was developed in Greece from 480 BC). It was discovered inPiazza Barberini. This genre of subject matter was also highly prized by Roman sculpture.^[16]Peplophoros is believed to haveMagno-Greek orSiceliot origins (dated around the years 470-460 BCE), although it cannot be ruled out a priori that it may be a Classicist reworking.^[22]

• 
  Niobid of theHorti Sallustiani
• 
  Statue of maiden wearing apeplos (the heavy Doric costume) found inPiazza Barberini (Greek original 470 BC).

Bronze statues previously placed in the Octagonal Hall of theBaths of Diocletian (theBoxer at Rest and theHellenistic Prince) are displayed there.^[22]

The bronze statue of the Boxer at Rest is a Greek sculpture, dated to the second half of the 4th century B.C. and attributed toLysippos or his immediate circle; found in Rome on the slopes of theQuirinal in 1885, it is preserved in the National Museum of Rome (inv. 1055).^[23]

The statue of the Hellenistic prince depicts a young man, completely naked, leaning on a spear held in his left hand. His right hand is resting on his right buttock. The statue was discovered on the Quirinal and may have come from a private residence and not from theBaths of Constantine. The realistic features of the face have generated much discussion among scholars without reaching a definitive solution, however, oscillating between a Pergamene prince, a member of the Romannobilitas, and a victorious general (perhaps Roman) who had fought under the protection of Hercules (as the pose of the sculpture itself seems to indicate).^[24]

• 
  TheBoxer at Rest^[23]
• 
  Statue of aprince of theSeleucid dynasty^[24]

On display in "Room VIII" are a number of masterpieces from the workshops of Neo-Attic sculptors (from the 2nd century BC), ready to put them on the market for the refined Roman collectors of thenobilitas. They represent copies or reworkings of classical models. They were used to decorate urban residences or the villas of the most important families of thesenatorial orequestrian order, so that they could emphasize their own Hellenistic-style culture.^[22] This phenomenon of assimilation of Hellenistic culture manifested itself with the elaboration of new architectural perspectives and a new taste for decorating the dwellings of private citizens of the most prominentgentes of ancient Rome. This phenomenon had begun with the seizure of important Hellenized cities, such asTaras (272 B.C.) andSyracuse (212 B.C.), becoming increasingly decisive whenRoman armies occupied theKingdom of Macedonia andAncient Greece (2nd century B.C.).^[25] Not surprisingly, the Greek historianPlutarch writes in the life ofMarcus Claudius Marcellus:

Marcellus, summoned by fellow citizens to intervene in the war that was taking place almost at the gates of Rome, took with him when he left most of the objects found as offerings in the temples of Syracuse. He intended to display them during his triumph and to beautify Rome. The city up to that time had not and did not know anything more elegant, pleasant, and exquisite, having not yet appreciated such gracefulness.

Statues of deities such asAthena, the sculptorMenophantos'Aphrodite, the neo-Attic base withMaenads (1st century B.C.), as well as aMelpomene Muse (?) that were normally placed in gardens (horti) are collected.^[22][26]

Another interesting sculpture is a grandPentelic marble cup supported by feral paws. It was found on theLungotevere in Sassia near the Hospital of the Holy Spirit (in the area of theHorti Agrippinae). It must have been part of a grandiose fountain. The surface outer part of the basin is decorated with anEros on a winged swan, groups ofNereids and SeaCentaurs carryingAchilles' weapons. The figures are late Hellenistic in style and thus datable to the first decades of the first century BCE.^[22]

• 
  Aphrodite of Menophantos^[22]
• 
  Base with dancing maenads (Parian marble; Sciarra collection; inv. 2.001.482)^[22]
• 
  Melpomene Muse^[22]
• 
  Nymphs (inv. 126.374; Barberini Square; 1st century AD).^[27]
• 
  Altar withAglaurids andMuses from Mentana (late 1st century BC).
• 
  Different angle of the Neo-Attic vase^[22]

The first floor is reached by a wide staircase where statues (copies or reworkings from Greek originals) of the most important deities of theRoman-Greek religion from the villas of Latium are displayed in some niches:Jupiter,Apollo,Dionysus, andAthena.^[28]

• 
  Athena Celimontana along the entrance staircase to the upper and basement floors.
• 
  A youngArtemis

On display are masterpieces ofRoman statuary, from the age of theFlavians tolate antiquity, as well as numeroussarcophagi, both pagan and Christian, including thesarcophagus of Portonaccio. In a large hall, the ancient "hall of masterpieces" of the "Museum of the Baths" is repurposed, displaying some important works on "ideal" sculpture, used as valuable furnishings of villas of the Roman aristocracy, such as theCrouching Venus, two copies of theDiscobolus and some Greek originals (including theMaiden of Anzio).^[28]

Floor plan of the first floor of the Roman National Museum at the Palazzo Massimo

In "Gallery I" are found numerous portraits fromHadrian's Villa, the imperial residence commissioned and built byHadrian inTivoli. On display are some of the portraits of his successors: fromMarcus Aurelius, found in the Golden Square, toBruttia Crispina, the wife ofCommodus, toCaracalla in his mature years (212-217 A.D.), whose image departs from that of theAntonine dynasty, having a short beard, a sullen face and a slight twist of the face to the left to recall the portrait of Alexander the Great.^[29]

• 
  Portrait ofAntoninus Pius from Hadrian's Villa
• 
  Portrait of Marcus Aurelius from Hadrian's Villa^[29]
• 
  Portrait of Bruttia Crispina from Hadrian's Villa^[29]
• 
  Bust of Caracalla from Hadrian's Villa^[29]

According to a phenomenon that could already be seen on the ground floor regarding theJulio-Claudian dynasty, the central power increasingly used the medium oficonography for propaganda and publicity purposes.^[30]

"Room I" contains works devoted to the image of theFlavian emperors (69-96 A.D.),Vespasian,Titus andDomitian, and ofNerva (96-98), who initiated theadoptive emperors (96-192). Among these portraits, one of the most important is that of Vespasian, found in theTiber (inv. 53),^[31] which belongs to the realist current, so cherished in the late republican period, in which the emperor is depicted old and wrinkled, in contrast to what had happened after the classicism of the Julio-Claudian age. The significance of this change in the style of this ruler is explained as a return to the ancient values of themos maiorum of the Republican period.^[28] By contrast, with his son, Domitian, there is a return to pro-Hellenism.^[30]

One of the most valuable statuary works in this room is that ofJulia, daughter of Titus.^[28][32]

• 
  Head ofVespasian fromOstia
• 
  Head of Vespasian with civic crown fromMinturnae
• 
  Bust ofJulia, daughter of Titus (found onTiber Island, at Fatebenefratelli Hospital; inv. 121.215)^[32]
• 
  Bust ofDomitian in pro-Hellenic style, found inLatina (inv. 115.191)^[30]
• 
  Bust of EmperorNerva fromTivoli (inf. 106,538)^[30]
• 
  Bust of Nerva (?) from Tivoli

One then enters "Room II," passing among loricate statues, where one finds representations of the twoprincipes Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138). Of the first emperor there is a portrait in which he is depicted asHercules and wearing a lion's skin (and probably also carrying a club). The crown of pine branches, however, represents another deity,Silvanus, linked to the world of forests (perhaps ofDacia).^[28]

Next are a series of portraits dedicated toPlotina, wife of Trajan, Hadrian (with the characteristic short curls and beard),^[34] of his wifeVibia Aurelia Sabina,^[35] as well as the latter emperor's favorite,Antinous, depicted perhaps as a priest of theMagna Mater.^[28][36]

Also in this room is a relief fromLanuvio that again depicts Antinous in the guise of Silvanus, cutting some bunches of grapes with a sickle.^[28]

• 
  Loricate statue between "room I" and "room II"
• 
  Second loricate statue from the Trajan era
• 
  Portrait of Plotina, wife of Trajan^[28]
• 
  Portrait of Hadrian (found at the arch of Santa Bibiana in Rome, in theHorti Liciniani; inv. 124.491)^[28][34]
• 
  Portrait of Vibia Sabina from theAppian Way.^[28]
• 
  Vibia Sabina from theVittoriano area (inv. 629).^[35]
• 
  Antinous, represented as Silvanus^[28]
• 
  Portrait of Antinous from Ostia, depicted as a priest of theMagna Mater^[28][36]

"Room III" was set up to show the image and celebration of the principate ofAntoninus Pius, a period of peace in the empire (138-161). In this room are a pair of portraits of the emperor (one fromFormia and one fromTerracina), one of which shows the heroized imperial image. The emperor appears naked wearing a cloak fastened over his left shoulder, while his right arm originally rested on a spear.^[28][37] Female figures, on the other hand, were shown as models of devotion to theirprinceps, as in the case of the statue ofFaustina the Younger,^[38] daughter of Antoninus Pius and wife ofMarcus Aurelius.^[39]

• 
  Portrait of Antoninus Pius
• 
  Heroized statue of Antoninus Pius (from Terracina; h. 174 cm; inv. 135.845)^[28][37]
• 
  Statue of Faustina the Younger (from Sciarra Palace; h. 195 cm, with plinth 207 cm; inv. 68)^[38][39]
• 
  Portrait of a philosopher of the Hadrianic or Antonine age (Tiber)

Also in this room are two panels belonging to the decoration of theHadrianeum (Temple of Hadrian) dedicated by Antoninus Pius in 145. The two panels each depict the female personification of aRoman province: an amazon, holding a curved sword, may representThracia; the one, on the other hand, wearing a rosette diadem possibly depicts Egypt.^[39] They came from the collection of the Odescalchi Palace, following their discovery during excavations underPope Alexander VII (1655-1667).^[40]

• 
  Relief of the Roman province of Egypt (Rome, Temple of Hadrian; h. 164 cm x 144 cm w.; inv. 428.497)^[39][40]
• 
  Relief of the Roman province ofThracia (Rome, Temple of Hadrian; h. 164 cm x 144 cm w.; inv. 428.496)^[39][40]

"Room IV" contains busts and statues from the reigns ofMarcus Aurelius (161-180), his adopted brotherLucius Verus (161-169) and his sonCommodus (180-192). There are also a statue ofAnnia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and a series of portraits of the three emperors, as well as two private portraits of bearded philosophers. The portraiture of the period features a hairstyle with voluminous curls and a long beard. The portrait of Crispina, wife of Commodus, also shows changes in hairstyles in the late second century.^[39]

• 
  Head ofLucius Verus, who reigned from 161 to 169 together with his adopted brother Marcus^[39]
• 
  Portrait of a young Lucius Verus^[39]
• 
  Head of Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius and mother of Commodus (Villa Altieri, Rome)^[39]
• 
  Statue ofAnnia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius^[39]
• 
  Head ofCommodus^[39]
• 
  Bust of Commodus from Albano^[39]
• 
  Head ofBruttia Crispina, wife of Commodus^[39]

In "Room V" (Magistra graecitas) are a series of ideal sculptures placed in imperial residences, such as Nero's villa inSubiaco and Anzio, orHadrian's Villa. Here one finds copies and reworkings of Greek originals, with the intention of recreating Hellenistic-like environments. The room shows a series of sculptures of the highest historical-artistic value such as: the headlessEphebos from Subiaco through which the theme of the killing of theNiobids returns; from the villa at Anzio come the famous "Maiden of Anzio," anApollo, young and almost feminine, anHermes, as well as anAmazon on horseback fighting with aCeltic warrior on the ground.^[29][41]

FromHadrian's Villa several works are on display. These include a statue ofDionysus and one ofAthena (a copy from a bronze original from the fourth century B.C. from theportico of the Villa Adriana's Pecile), a dancing maiden that derives from a Hellenistic original (from the portico of thetriclinium of the threeexedras),^[29][42] ornamental objects such as the classicist marblekrater decorated with cranes and snakes,^[43] a head of an Amazon,^[44] and two copies of theCrouching Venus (without arms) from Doidalsas ofBithynia (mid-3rd century BCE. C.): a first in Parian marble, from Via Palermo, near the Viminal Palace (1913), originally with Eros and swan (mid-2nd-century A.D. copy); a second from the baths withheliocaminus from Hadrian's Villa (1914) in Pentelic marble (?), a copy from the Hadrianic age.^[45][46]

• 
  Two copies of Doidalsas'Crouching Venus: left in Parian marble (from Palermo Street, Rome) and right from the baths ofHadrian's Villa.^[45][46]
• 
  Headless ephebos from Subiaco^[29]
• 
  The Maiden of Anzio^[29]
• 
  Statue of Apollo (from the state highway Anzio-Ardea; height 186 cm; inv. 121.302)^[29][47]
• 
  Hermes, 1st-century B.C.E. Roman copy from 5th-century B.C.E. bronze original attributed to a youngPhidias (Ludovisi collection)^[29]
• 
  Amazon (headless) fighting a Celt (from Anzio, Antonine age)^[29]
• 
  Dancing maiden^[29][42]
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  AnApollo, young and almost feminine (from Castelporziano, Chigi type, inv. 75.675)^[29]
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  Dionysus from Hadrian's Villa (inv. 622)^[29]
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  Detail of the statue ofAthena (from Hadrian's Villa)^[29]

• 
  A classical marble krater decorated with cranes and snakes^[43]
• 
  Detail of marble krater decorated with cranes and snakes^[43]
• 
  Amazon head of Mattei type, Roman copy from Greek original by Phidias from Hadrian's Villa (cryptoporticus between stadium and libraries), in Parian marble.^[44][45]
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  Hypnos fromHadrian's Villa (found inside acryptoporticus from the entrance of Piazza d'Oro)
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  Female diademed head from Hadrian's Villa (cryptoporticus at the temple of Knidian Aphrodite)^[41]
• 
  Portrait ofAntinous, Hadrian's lover, from Hadrian's Villa

The entrance to "Room VI" features the Apollo of the Tiber by a Neo-Attic sculptor of theAugustan age who was probably inspired by earlyPhidias.^[48] This room is dedicated to sculptures used to reconstruct the atmosphere of thegymnasium (ornamenta gymnasii). In the center of the room are two Roman copies from the Hadrianic period of the famousDiscobolus ofMyron (5th century B.C.): the Lancellotti Discobolus, from the 1781 Esquiline excavations (from Villa Palombara),^[49] and the headless Castelporziano Discobolus.^[50] Also part of the room are the ephebe athlete Monteverde,^[51] two heads ofPraxiteles' Lycian-type Apollo,^[52] other copies of statues of athletes, including a head ofLysippos and a torso (copy from an original of thePolyclitean school).^[45]

• 
  The Discobolus of Castelporziano (height 148 cm; inv. 56.039)^[50]
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  The Lancellotti Discobolus (height 155 cm; inv.126,371)^[45][49]
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  TheTiber Apollo (found in 1891; inv. 608; height 204 cm)^[45][48]
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  Monteverdi-type ephebe athlete (height 130 cm; inv. 75.219)^[51]
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  Head of Apollo,Praxiteles Lyceum type (height 30 cm; inv. 55.336; from Rome, Via Giolitti; early 2nd century)^[52]

TheSleeping Hermaphrodite seen on both sides^[53][54]

"Room VII" is an area devoted to divine figures, which, always used in villas and town houses, were intended to illustrate cultural values and the pantheon of gods of ancient Greece, but also the joy of life, as in the case of the African Acrobat, the Flautist Satyr, a naked Apollo^[55] and one in citharist costume,^[56] the Artemis armed with a headless quiver,^[57]Dionysus in the guise of Sardanapalus (from theAppian Way and probably derived from an original from the late 4th century BCE. B.C.)^[58][59] and a bronze youth (from the banks of the Tiber, of Hadrianic age that was inspired by models from the fourth century B.C.),^[59][60] Athena, Pan, Crouching Venus (marble copy from the bronze original by Doidalsas), the Eros archer byLysippos (Villa dei Quintili on theAppian Way),^[61] aThetis with a triton,^[62] and finally theSleeping Hermaphrodite.^[45]

Regarding the Sleeping Hermaphrodite, it depicts a young man, sleeping on his own cloak, with his head resting on his right arm, which serves as a pillow. The body lies on its side. The rear view, with the buttocks provocatively in the foreground, suggests the beauty of a female body.^[53] The front view, on the other hand, shows the erect male sex organ, which reveals the identity of theHermaphrodite. According to the Latin poetPublius Ovidius Naso, he was a boy of great beauty who was transformed into an androgynous being with a dual sexual identity through a supernatural union with thenymphSalmacis.^[54][63]

• 
  Statue of an African acrobat^[45]
• 
  Headless statue ofArtemis (Villa dei Quintili; height 159 cm; inv. 107,682)^[57]
• 
  The Apollo of Castelporziano (white marble; height 170 cm; inv. 75,675)^[55]
• 
  A citharist Apollo from theVilla of the Quintili^[56]
• 
  Eros archer by Lysippos (height 120 cm; inv. 129,185)^[61]
• 
  Dionysus Sardanapalus^[58][59]
• 
  Bronze Dionysus (from the Tiber riverbed; height 158 cm; inv. 1.060)^[59][60]
• 
  Detail of the face of the bronze Dionysus^[59][60]
• 
  Statue ofThetis with a triton (Roman copy from a 2nd-century BC Greek original)^[62]
• 
  The so-called "Ares Ludovisi" (now inPalazzo Altemps), which may represent Achilles and be part of the sculptural group along with Thetis^[62]
• 
  Penthesilea, figure inGreek mythology, daughter ofAres andOtrera,^[64] and sister ofHippolyta,Antiope andMelanippe.
• 
  Eros archer (fromLungotevere in Sassia; 2nd-century AD Roman copy from Greek original byLysippos)^[41]

In "Room VIII" the dominant theme is that of the sculptural representation of important mythological groups that were used asexempla virtutis in the furnishings. In this room are examples such as: a head ofHeracles from Nemi, a torso ofMinotaur (found in Rome together with a male one, possibly belonging to Theseus), a torso ofOdysseus (part of a group in which there is the Greek hero, together withDiomedes, after having taken thePalladium fromTroy), as well as a statue of the Pedagogue together with the younger sons ofNiobe.^[65]

• 
  Portrait of Hercules (late 2nd century AD; ancient theater atNemi)^[41][65]
• 
  Minotaur Torso^[65]
• 
  Pedagogue Torso^[65]

On display in "Room IX" are a series of busts, statues representing the love of theater. These are sculptures of "theatrical" deities, such asherms representingHermes andDionysus, orHomer andMenander, and theatrical masks. One example comes from the villa atTorre Astura, whose statue represents an actor masquerading asPapposilenus, the father of the Satyrs, a guide in the theater (in satirical drama). The costume worn consists of a mask, hairy tights, achlamys, and achiton with sleeves made of lamb's hair.^[65]

• 
  Herm ofHomer andMenander (Pentelic marble; Roman copy from the age ofNero orFlavia from a Hellenistic original; found in the Barbuta area of Rome).^[65]
• 
  Papposilenus from Via Flavia (villa Spithoever), 1906. Luna marble. Roman copy of 2nd century AD from Hellenistic original of 2nd century BC.^[65]
• 
  Protome from the Hadrianic period, depicting a mask to adorntheatrical buildings; masks of deities were used as dedications for theLudi scaenici (theatrical performances).

In "Room X" are the bronzes of ships that belonged to EmperorCaligula^[66] and were found inLake Nemi. They adorned two large ships found between 1895 and 1932 (71.30 x 20 meters and 73 x 24 meters, respectively), which were destroyed during World War II. They were used for the emperor's feasts and banquets, showing unrestrained pageantry of the time, and were connected to a villa that Caligula had on the lake (formerly belonging toGaius Julius Caesar),^[67] adjoining the Latian shrine of Diana Nemorense (the seat of theLatin League dissolved in 338 BC). The ships echoed the Hellenistic tradition of parade boats, as was the case among thePtolemies. They had marble and mosaic flooring, were decorated with the bronzes on display, and covered with gilded tiles. Regarding the bronzes that have come down to us: a balustrade supported by small pillars adorned with Dionysian herms, some animal heads (four wolves, three lions, and a leopard), and aMedusa.^[65] Other finds have been dispersed among private collections and foreign museums.^[68]

• 
  Wolf-shaped bronze from theNemi ships;Caligula era, 37-41 AD.^[65][68]
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  Lion-shaped bronze (Nemi ships)^[65][68]
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  Bronze in the shape of a medusa (Nemi ships; found in 1895)^[65][68]
• 
  Bronze in the shape of a hand (Nemi ships)^[68]
• 
  Bronzes in the shape of heads of various animals from the ships of Nemi^[65][68]

In "Room XI" there is a Domitian-era relief depicting a decastyle temple with the pediment decorated with an episode from Roman mythology: theLupercal andRhea Silvia. This relief looks like it may belong to the same fragment with a scene of a procession of togates now preserved in theVatican Museums.^[65]

• 
  Procession of togates (Vatican Museums)

Since the Flavian era and then throughout the second century CE until theAntonine dynasty, one of the main themes of Roman art were the victories achieved by its generals over barbarian nations along the imperial borders (limes). Thus developed in this period a series of historical reliefs celebrating the military campaigns of the emperors both in the public sphere, fromtriumphal arches, columns (such as theTrajan's Column and that ofMarcus Aurelius) and temples, to private (such as funerary reliefs or sarcophagi).^[65] A relief dating to the Flavian or Trajan age is preserved, in which three Roman legionaries advance through a reedbed, probably engaged in a military campaign. In another relief there is a barbarian and remains of other figures (from theCampus Martius), datable to the first century, which belonged to a frieze celebrating a Roman victory along the northern borders.^[69]

"Room XII" was set up for the so-calledPortonaccio sarcophagus. This is aRoman sarcophagus found in 1931 in Via delle Cave di Pietralata, near Portonaccio, a neighborhood of Rome along theVia Tiburtina. It can be dated to around c. 180.^[70] All the scenes illustrate thevirtutes of the deceased (possibly Aulus Julius Pompilius Titus Vivius Laevillus Piso Berenicianus), who stands in the center of the sarcophagus in the act of fighting against the barbarians. On the elevation of the lid, on the other hand, four scenes from the deceased's life are engraved that also celebrate his virtues: the presentation of the newborn to his mother; his education andsapientia (due to the presence of theMuses); marriage andconcordia; and theclementia reserved toward the barbarians.^{[65][69][71][72]}

The sarcophagus must have been the tomb of a Roman general engaged inMarcus Aurelius'sGermano-Sarmatian campaigns of the years 172-175,^[70] and is perhaps the finest example of private sculpture of the second century,^[73] with influences related to the trends of theAurelian Column.^[69] The face of the deceased is not elaborated, perhaps because the workshops, after producing the basic sculpture, waited for the buyer to be able to portray him. In the case of Pompilius Berenicianus there may have been a lack of time to portray him or his face was not known to the sculptor. Some modern scholars believe that the illustration of the protagonist's biographical events were summarized in scenes that were valid for anyone.^[72]

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  Roman soldiers escort two barbarian prisoners^[69][71]
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  Two barbarians prostrate themselves before the Roman commander, probably the deceased^[69][71]
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  Detail of the front-left side: trophies, barbarian chief and presumed consort.^[72]
• 
  Detail of the central part, where the deceased is seen fighting against the barbarians.^[72]
• 
  Detail of the front-right: trophies, barbarian chief withSuebian knot (people of theQuadi orMarcomanni orBuri) and presumed consort.^[72]
• 
  Detail with Roman insignia bearing the Roman number "IIII" symbolizingLegio IV Flavia Felix, stationed inMoesia Superior (Singidunum).
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  Detail of the upper part between the left side and the front side.^[72]

Exhibited along "Gallery II" are a number of busts of the consorts of emperors from the 3rd-4th centuries CE, beginning with theSeveran dynasty and ending with the period known as themilitary anarchy (cf.3rd century crisis). Among them are those ofJulia Domna (wife of Septimius Severus) andFulvia Plautilla (wife of Caracalla), characterized by complex hairstyles; those ofEtruscilla (wife ofDecius) andSalonina (wife of Gallienus) distinguished by classicist hairstyles; and a crowned head in a particularly courtly and elegant style typical of the Constantinian court.^[74][75]

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  Julia Domna, wife of EmperorSeptimius Severus (193-211)^[74][75]
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  Fulvia Plautilla, wife ofCaracalla (211-217), was executed in 212^[74][75]
• 
  Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, wife ofGordian III (238-244)
• 
  Marcia Otacilia Severa, wife ofPhilip the Arab (244-249)
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  Portrait ofHerennia Cupressenia Etruscilla, wife of EmperorDecius (249-251)^[75]
• 
  Head ofCornelia Salonina, wife of EmperorGallienus (253-268)^[75]

"Room XIII" features the display of sculptures reserved for theAfrican-born dynasty of the Severans (193-235), which had inSeptimius Severus its progenitor (193-211), continued with his sonCaracalla (reign 211-217) and ended withAlexander Severus (reign 222-235),^[72] which was followed by the period known asmilitary anarchy.^[74]

In the hall is a loricate bust of Septimius Severus in Greek marble from Ostia, which shows remarkable continuity with the image of the Antonines, from whom he claimed descent, to legitimize his own imperial investiture.^[76] The collection continues with a portrait of Caracalla in Greek marble, from the Via Cassia (found in 1948), which instead has a very short beard and shows an early shift toward what was his father's imperial image.^[72] The face seems to suggest an intense spirituality, typical of the third century, but also a wrathful, shy, non-benevolent recalcitrance.^[77]

There are also a number of portraits of his brotherGeta, most notably a statue in which he is depicted as a young Apollo. Geta had initially been associated with the throne by his brother in 211 upon the death of his father, and then in 212 had been assassinated, while his statues suffereddamnatio memoriae. Another image showing the evolution of the imperial portrait is a colossal head of Severus Alexander, which appears frontally and with solemn composure.^[72][74]

• 
  Bust ofSeptimius Severus from Ostia (193-211; h. 69 cm; inv. 345)^[72][76]
• 
  Bust ofCaracalla (211-217) from theVia Cassia (h. 35 cm; inv. 125,565)^[77]
• 
  Portrait ofGeta, son of Septimius Severus
• 
  Bust of Geta (from Via XX Settembre in Rome)^[74]
• 
  Colossal portrait ofAlexander Severus from Ostia (222-235)^[72][74]

The large "Room XIV" displays works ranging from the period of so-calledmilitary anarchy (which followed the death of Alexander Severus) to a new recovery of imperial power withDiocletian's tetrarchic reform (284-305) and the establishment ofConstantine I (306-337), the latter marking the birth of the Christian empire.^[78] Matteo Cadario also believes that there were important changes in the artistic conception of this period, which he summarizes as follows:

Realistic and classicist portraiture were left out with a few exceptions [...], in order to seek the expression of charisma through connection with divinity [...], preferring abstraction to naturalism.

The room displays a series of sarcophagi from the 3rd century: the sarcophagus of the Muses shows the heroization of the deceased through culture, represented by the Muses enclosed within small niches; the sarcophagus of the Annona is in the popular style with symbolic depiction of the trade and distribution of grain (alluding to Flavius Arabianus' office ofpraefectus annonae), decorated with eight figures in relief against the background of aparapetasma (curtain), with two spouses celebrating thedextrarum iunctio in the center, above a small altar; the sarcophagus of Acilia, which, in the figure-portrait of the youth, has been recognized as EmperorGordian III (238-244), according to the identification ofRanuccio Bianchi Bandinelli, while other scholars, with less persuasive arguments, recognize the youthNigrinian, son of EmperorMarcus Aurelius Carinus, or a personification of theprocessus consularis.^[78]

With the establishment of Christianity, a number of works from the fourth century are displayed in the room, including a number of sarcophagi, a krater made of chalky marble, a slab with scenes of miracles, and the statuette of the seated Christ teaching, as an example of Theodosian classicism. Christ is depicted as a "wonder boy" who, with his right hand raised, explains the text contained in the half-open scroll.^[75]

• 
  Portrait ofDecimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus (238)
• 
  Portrait ofGordian III (238-244)^[78]
• 
  Charioteer from the age of Gallienus (from Piazza Chiesa Nuova, Rome)^[78]
• 
  Head of bearded man
• 
  Head of a man

• 
  Sarcophagus of the Muses (280-290 A.D.;Villa Celimontana, Rome)^[78]
• 
  Annona sarcophagus (270-280 A.D.; inv. 40,799)^[78]
• 
  Sarcophagus of Marcus Claudianus (330-335 AD).

The second floor houses the frescoes from the undergroundnymphaeum of Livia's villa "ad Gallinas Albas," a locality nearPrima Porta, which belonged toLivia Drusilla, the empress wife ofAugustus: atrompe-l'œil depicting a garden with fruit trees and birds on all four sides.

In the other rooms are a series of wall and floor mosaics, late imperial megalographies, the panels withpompa circensis and "Hylas abducted bynymphs" from the so-calledbasilica of Junius Bassus, the frescoes from the "river port of St. Paul" and the section of frescoes found in the underground rooms of the "villa or house of the Farnesina" (as it was located in what were the gardens of theVilla Farnesina built byBaldassarre Peruzzi forAgostino Chigi and later razed in the late 19th century to allow the opening of theLungotevere). The frescoed rooms were restored, refurbished and inaugurated on June 30, 2010.^[79]

• 
  Mosaic
• 
  Roman mosaic with cube design producing aNecker Cube-like optical illusion.
• 
  Villa of Livia garden fresco
• 
  Villa of Livia garden fresco
• 
  Villa of Livia garden fresco
• 
  Villa of Livia garden fresco
• 
  Villa of Livia garden fresco

It features a section devoted to goldsmithing and a rich collection ofnumismatics, once belonging toVictor Emmanuel III.

It also houses the mummy of a little girl around eight years old, the so-calledGrottarossa mummy,^[80] dating from around the second century A.D.; found on theVia Cassia inside a sarcophagus along with her funerary set, which is also on display; it is the only mummy from the Roman era ever found.

• 
  Coin ofBasiliscus

• Museo Nazionale Romano

• "Museo Nazionale Romano - Palazzo Massimo".MiBAC. Retrieved30 July 2019.
• "Palazzo Massimo".Museo Nazionale Romano. Retrieved30 July 2019.

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