Minoan chronology is aframework of dates used to divide the history of theMinoan civilization. Two systems ofrelative chronology are used for the Minoans. One is based onsequences ofpottery styles, while the other is based on the architectural phases of theMinoan palaces. These systems are often used alongside one another.
Establishing anabsolute chronology has proved difficult, since different methodologies provide different results. For instance, whilecarbon dating places theeruption of Thera around 1600 BC, synchronism withEgyptian records would place it roughly a century later.
| 3100–2650 BC[1] | EM I | Prepalatial |
| 2650–2200 BC | EM II | |
| 2200–2100 BC | EM III | |
| 2100–1925 BC | MM IA | |
| 1925–1875 BC | MM IB | Protopalatial |
| 1875–1750 BC | MM II | |
| 1750–1700 BC | MM III | Neopalatial |
| 1700–1625 BC | LM IA | |
| 1625–1470 BC | LM IB | |
| 1470–1420 BC | LM II | Postpalatial |
| 1420–1330 BC | LM IIIA | |
| 1330–1200 BC | LM IIIB | |
| 1200–1075 BC | LM IIIC |
The standard relative chronology divides Minoan history into three eras:Early Minoan (EM),Middle Minoan (MM) andLate Minoan (LM). These eras are divided into sub-eras using Roman numerals (e.g. EM I, EM II, EM III) and sub-sub-eras using capital letters (e.g. LM IIIA, LM IIIB, LM IIIC).[2][3]
This system is based on thesequence of pottery styles excavated at Minoan sites. For instance, the transition from EM III to MM IA is characterized by the appearance of handmadepolychrome pottery; the transition from MM IA to MM IB follows the appearance ofwheel-made pottery.[4]
This framework was originated byArthur Evans during his excavations at Knossos. It remains the standard in Minoan archaeology, though it has been revised and refined by subsequent researchers, and some aspects remain under debate.[2][5][3]
An alternative framework divides Minoan history based on the construction phases of theMinoan palaces. In this system, thePrepalatial period covers the timespan before the construction of the palaces. TheProtopalatial era begins with the construction of the first palaces and ends with their destruction. TheNeopalatial period, often considered the zenith of Minoan civilization, begins with the rebuilding of the palaces and ends with yet another wave of destructions. ThePostpalatial period covers the era in which Minoan culture continued in the absence of the palaces. Some variants of this system include aFinal palace period or aMonopalatial period between the Neo- and Postpalatial periods, corresponding to the era when the palace at Knossos was reoccupied.[2][6]
The architectural periodization was proposed byNikolaos Platon in 1961, though later scholars have proposed variants and refinements. This system is often used concurrently with the ceramic chronology, since the two are commensurate. For instance, the Prepalatial period covers the ceramic phases EM I through MM IA.[7][2]
Establishing anabsolute chronology has proved difficult. Archaeologists have attempted to determine calendar dates by synchronizing the periods of Minoan relative chronology with those of better understood neighbors. For example, Minoan artifacts from the LM IB ceramic period have been found in18th Dynasty contexts in Egypt, for whichEgyptian chronology provides generally accepted calendar dates. However, dates determined in this manner do not always match the results ofcarbon dating and other methods based onnatural science. Much of the controversy concerns the dating of theeruption of Thera, which is known to have occurred towards the end of the LM IA period. While carbon dating places this event (and thus LM IA) around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later.[8][9][10][11][12]
The timing of natural disasters is of importance to high and low chronologies, which can use the resulting geological evidence to date co-located artifacts. The eruption of the Thera volcano on what is now the island ofSantorini is of particular significance to the chronology of Minoan history.
The Theran eruption plays a role in both the high and low chronological approaches, although each system assigns a different date range to the event. In his initial framework, Evans vaguely assigned the eruption to the 17th century BCE.[3] Low chronological assessments revise the eruption to the mid-15th century, while high and blended chronologies push the date back to a point that lies between those assigned by Evans and low chronologies—a more commonly accepted specific date of approximately 1628, though the date is by no means generally agreed. The ancient city was buried under volcanic ash after a massive eruption around 1600 BC.[13] The precise date is of more concern to archaeologists of the Asian mainland and Ancient Egypt—where volcanic ash from Thera is widely evident, and there are established competing chronologies—than to those ofCrete.
High chronological techniques such as radiocarbon dating can be used in conjunction with evidence from artifacts indirectly related to the eruption, such as eruption-causedtsunami debris, to pinpoint the exact timing of the event and therefore which Minoan period it belongs in.[14] However, the broadness of radiocarbon dating has also resulted in dates for the eruption of Thera that do not precisely match evidence from the archeological record.
Early Minoan society developed largely continuously from local Neolithic predecessors, with some cultural influence and perhaps migration from eastern populations. This period saw a gradual shift from localized clan-based villages towards the more urbanized and stratified society of later periods.[15]
EM I (c. 3100–2650 BC) is marked by the appearance of the first painted ceramics. Continuing a trend that began during the Neolithic, settlements grew in size and complexity, and spread from fertile plains towards highland sites and islands as the Minoans learned to exploit less hospitable terrain.[15][16]
EM II (c. 2650–2200 BC) has been termed an international era. Trade intensified, and Minoan ships began sailing beyond the Aegean to Egypt and Syria, possibly enabled by the invention of masted ships. Minoan material culture shows increased international influence, for instance in the adoption ofMinoan seals based on the olderNear Eastern seal. Minoan settlements grew, some doubling in size, and monumental buildings were constructed at sites that would later become palaces.[15][17]
EM III (c. 2200–2100 BC) saw the continuation of these trends.
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MM I (c. 2100–1875 BC) saw the emergence ofProtopalatial society. During MM IA (c. 2100–1925 BC), populations increased dramatically at sites such as Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia, accompanied by major construction projects. During MM IB (c. 1925–1875 BC), the first palaces were built at these sites, in areas that had been used for communal ceremonies since the Neolithic. Middle Minoan artisans developed new colorful paints and adopted thepotter's wheel during MM IB, producing wares such asKamares ware.[15][18][4]
MM II (c. 1875–1750 BC) saw the development of the Minoan writing systemsCretan hieroglyphic andLinear A. It ended with mass destructions generally attributed to earthquakes, though violent destruction has been considered as an alternative explanation.[18][19]
MM III (c. 1750–1700 BC) marks the beginning of theNeopalatial period. Most of the palaces were rebuilt using architectural innovations, with the notable exception of Phaistos. Cretan hieroglyphs were abandoned in favor of Linear A, and Minoan cultural influence becomes significant in mainland Greece.[18][20]
The Late Minoan period was an eventful time that saw profound change in Minoan society. Many of the most recognizable Minoan artifacts date from this time, for instance theSnake goddess figurines,La Parisienne Fresco, and themarine style of pottery decoration.[6]
LM I (c. 1700–1470 BC) was a continuation of the prosperous Neopalatial culture. A notable event from this era was theeruption of the Thera volcano, which occurred around 1600 BC towards the end of the LM IA subperiod.[6] One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about 60 to 100 cubic kilometres (14 to 24 cu mi) of material and was measured at 7 on theVolcanic Explosivity Index.[21][22][23] While the eruption destroyedCycladic settlements such asAkrotiri and led to the abandonment of some sites in northeast Crete, other Minoan sites such as Knossos continued to prosper. The post-eruption LM IB period (c. 1625–1470 BC) saw ambitious new building projects, booming international trade, and artistic developments such as themarine style.[6]
LM IB (c. 1625–1470 BC) ended with severe destructions throughout the island, marking the end of Neopalatial society. These destructions are thought to have been deliberate, since they spared certain sites in a manner inconsistent with natural disasters. For instance, the town at Knossos burned while the palace itself did not. The causes of these destructions have been a perennial topic of debate. While some researchers attributed them to Mycenaean conquerors, others have argued that they were the result of internal upheavals. Similarly, while some researchers have attempted to link them to lingering environmental disruption from the Thera eruption, others have argued that the two events are too distant in time for any causal relation.[6]
LM II (c. 1470–1420 BC) is sparsely represented in the archaeological record but appears to have been a period of decline. It marks the beginning of theMonopalatial period, as the palace at Knossos was the only one remaining in use.[6][24]
LM III (c. 1420–1075 BC) shows profound social and political changes. Among the palaces, only Knossos remained in use, though it too was destroyed by LM IIIB2 and possibly earlier. The language of administration shifted toMycenaean Greek, written inLinear B, and material culture shows increased mainland influence, reflecting the rise of a Greek-speaking elite.[6][25][26]
In LM IIIC (c. 1200–1075 BC), coinciding with the widerLate Bronze Age collapse, coastal settlements were abandoned in favor of defensible locations on higher ground. These small villages, some of which grew out of earlier mountain shrines, continued aspects of recognizably Minoan culture until theEarly Iron Age.[6][27]