Pahari Pothwari
پہاڑی ،پوٹھوہاری Poṭhohārī, Pahāṛī
Native to	Pakistan
Region	Pothohar region ofPunjab,Azad Kashmir and western parts ofJammu and Kashmir
Native speakers	several million[a]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Northwestern Punjabi Lahnda Pahari Pothwari
Writing system	Shahmukhi
Language codes
ISO 639-3	phr
Glottolog	paha1251  Pahari Potwari

Pahari Pothwari^[b][c] is anIndo-Aryanlanguage variety of theLahnda group,^[d] spoken in the northern half ofPothohar Plateau, inPunjab, Pakistan, as well as in the most of Pakistan-administeredAzad Kashmir and in the western areas of Indian-administeredJammu and Kashmir. It is known by a variety of names, the most common of which arePahari (English:/pəˈhɑːri/;^[1]an ambiguous name also applied to other unrelated languages of India), andPothwari (orPothohari).

The language is transitional betweenHindko andstandard Punjabi and is mutually intelligible with both.^[2] There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,^[3] although a local standard has not been established yet.^[4] TheShahmukhi script is used to write the language, such as in the works of Punjabi poetMian Muhammad Bakhsh.

Grierson in his early 20th-centuryLinguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question.^[5] In a sense allLahnda varieties, and standard Punjabi are "dialects" of a "greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.^[6]

60km
37miles

Baramulla

Srinagar

Bagh

Rajouri

Poonch

Jhelum

Murree

Mirpur

Gujarkhan

Bharakao

Abbottabad

Muzaffarabad

   

Azad Kashmir and surrounding areas with some of the locations mentioned in this section. Places where Pahari–Pothwari is spoken are indark red.

There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari.^[e]

The dialects are mutually intelligible,^[7] but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (fromMuzaffarabad andMirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.^[8]

Pothwari (پوٹھوہاری), also speltPotwari,Potohari andPothohari,^[9] is spoken in the north-eastern portion ofPothohar Plateau of northern Punjab,^[10] an area administratively withinRawalpindi division.^[11] Pothwari is its most common name, and some call itPindiwal Punjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab.^[12]

Pothwari extends southwards up to theSalt Range, with the city ofJhelum marking the border withMajha dialect. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, withBharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins.^[13] InAttock andTalagang districts of Pothohar, it comes in contact with other Lahnda varieties, namelyChacchi,Awankari andGhebi. InChakwal, yet another dialect is spoken,Dhani.^[14]

Pothwari has been represented as a dialect of Punjabi by the Punjabi language movement,^[4] and in census reports the Pothwari areas of Punjab have been shown as Punjabi-majority.^[f]

East of the Pothwari areas, across theJhelum River intoMirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir.^[15]Locally it is known by a variety of names:^[g]Pahari,Mirpur Pahari,Mirpuri,^[h] andPothwari,^[16] while some of its speakers call itPunjabi.^[17]Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the Pothwari Punjabis.^[18]The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of theMangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England.^[19]TheBritish Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been claimed to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK till replaced by Polish, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.^[20]

Pahari (پہاڑی) is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found aroundMurree.^[21] This area is in theGalyat: the hill country ofMurree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeasternAbbottabad District.^[22] One name occasionally found in the literature for this language isDhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used byGrierson^[23] who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – theKairal and theDhund.^[10] Its speakers call itPahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbottabad district it is known as eitherHindko orḌhūṇḍī.^[24]Nevertheless,Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language.^[25] It forms adialect continuum with Pahari,^[10] and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko betweenAyubia andNathiagali.^[26]

A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect arePahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves),Chibhālī,^[27] named after theChibhal region^[28] or the Chibh ethnic group,^[11] andPahari (Poonchi) (پونچھی, also speltPunchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to thedistrict of Poonch,^[29] or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir.^[30] This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree,^[23] or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects.^[31] The dialect of thedistrict of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%).^[32]

InMuzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity^[i] of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status.^[33] The speakers however tend to call their languageHindko^[34] and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west,^[35] despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects ofAbbottabad andMansehra.^[36] Further north into theNeelam Valley the dialect, now known locally asParmi, becomes closer to Hindko.^[37]

Pahari is also spoken further east across theLine of Control into thePir Panjal mountains in IndianJammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million,^[38] is found in the region between theJhelum andChenab rivers: most significantly in the districts ofPoonch andRajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouringBaramulla andKupwara,^[39] and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during thePartition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.^[40] Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of theConstitution of Jammu and Kashmir.^[41] This Pahari is sometimes conflated with theWestern Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which includeBhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", although not same they are closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.^[42]

Pahari Pothwari is also very widely spoken in theUnited Kingdom. Labour shortages afterWorld War II, and the displacement of peoples caused by the construction of the Mangla Dam, facilitated extensive migration of Pahari-Pothwari speakers to the UK during the 1950s and 1960s, especially from the Mirpur District. Academics estimate that between two thirds and 80% of people officially classified asBritish Pakistanis originate as part of this diaspora, with some suggesting that it is the second most spokenlanguage of the United Kingdom, ahead of even Welsh, with hundreds of thousands of speakers.^[43] However, since there is little awareness of the identity of the language among speakers,^[44] census results do not reflect this.^[45] The highest proportions of Pahari-Pothwari speakers are found in urban centres, especially theWest Midlands conurbation and theWest Yorkshire Built-up Area.^[45]

A long diphthong /ɑi/ can be realized as[äː].^[46]

• Sounds[f,ʒ,χ,ʁ,q] are heard from Persian and Arabic loanwords.
• /h/ is realized as voiced[ɦ] in word-initial position.
• /n/ before a velar consonant can be heard as[ŋ].^[46]

Extendedmasculine forms can be realised as being added theoblique forms ending in -e, which is shortened to-i- (phonetically [e̯]) beforeback vowels and is lost beforefront vowels.

Notes:

• Extended nouns generally end in -ā for masculine and -ī for feminine in the direct singular form

The numbers in their oblique form function the same throughout Punjabi dialects.

Pahari-Pothwari has unique forms for nouns in oblique cases. This is not observed in standard Punjabi, but is seen inHindko.^[48]

These cases remain the same between Pothohari and other dialects.

As example of the vocative case:

Pronominal suffixes

Pothohari makes use of the general Punjabi suffixes.

Examples:

A peculiar feature of Pahari-Pothwari is to end the basic root form of verbs with an "i" sound.^[49]

The future tense in Pothwari is formed by adding -s as opposed to the Eastern Punjabigā.^[50]

This tense is also used in otherwestern Punjabi dialects such as,Shahpuri,Jhangochi,Awankari,Chacchi^[51],Dhanni, as well as in andHindko andSaraiki.^[52]

This type of future tense was also used by classical Punjabi poets. Punjabi poetBulleh Shah sometimes uses a similar form of future tense in his poetry:^[53]

Shahmukhi: جو کُجھ کرسَیں, سو کُجھ پاسَیں

Transliteration: jo kujh karsãĩ, so kujh pāsãĩ

Translation: whatsoever you do, is what you shall gain^[54]

Similar to otherPunjabi varieties, Pothwari usespeyā (past tense form ofpēṇā) to signify the continuous tense.^[55]

The past tense in Pothwari resembles that of Eastern Punjabi, however depending on the dialect, there may be slight variations.

The place of "pyā" may sometimes be switched with respect to the verb. This is common in Majhi (e.g:Noor Jehan's"chann māhi teri rāh pyi takkni ãã) and as well as in Jhangochi, Shahpuri, etc

"tusā̃ báhū̃ changā kamm karne ò pa'e", meaning "you (plural/sing. formal) are doing a very good thing"

"mē̃ vī tā̃ éhe gall ākhnā sā̃ peyā", meaning "I was also saying the same thing"

"mē̃ vī tā̃ ehe gall peyā ākhnā ā̃̀", meaning "I am also saying the same thing"

These are typically the same in Pothohari and standard Punjabi, but some differences can be noted.

Note:

• Some Majhi subdialects do use کٹھّیوں for کٹھّیاں
• Standard Punjabi makes use of اُپّر
• In Pahari-Pothohari مسیں means now, while in other dialects مسیں / مساں means "barely/hardly"
• The pronunciation وِشکار is not unique to Pahari-Pothohari alone
• The word and expression ہلا /Hala is common throughout Western Punjab, also used in Majhi

The genitive marker in Pahari-Pothwari is represented through the use ofnā (ਨਾ /نا) as opposed todā (ਦਾ /دا) in common Punjabi.^[56]

• The phrase:lokkā̃dā (ਲੋਕਾਂਦਾ /لوکاںدا), meaning "people's" or "of the people" in Pahari-Pothwari, would becomelokkā̃nā (ਲੋਕਾਂਨਾ /لوکاںنا)

It should also be noted that in Pahari-Pothwari, the present form of verb does not end with the standarddā sound either, and is replaced withnā. This means thatākhdā would beākhnā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to say" and similarly the wordtakkdā would betakknā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to look/to watch".

For example:

• miki eh nih sicāhinā (میکی ایہہ نِیہ سی چاہینا), meaning "this is not what I wanted"
• oh kai pyāākhnā ae? (اوہ کے پیا آخنا ہے؟), meaning "what is he saying?"
• This also affects the common Punjabi passive tense:is tarhā̃ nihākhī nā (اِس طرحاں نہیں آخی نا), instead of "ākhee dā", meaning "that's not how it should be said"

The dative and definite object marker in Pothwari iskī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed tonū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in standard Punjabi.

The phrase:lokkā̃nū̃ (ਲੋਕਾਂਨੂੰ / لوکاںنوں), meaning "to the people" in standard Punjabi, would becomelokkā̃kī (ਲੋਕਾਂਕੀ / لوکاںکی) in Pothwari.

Pahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribebirādrī/barādarī (برادری) becomesbilādrī/balādarī (بلادری) in Pahari-Pothwari and several other Punjabi dialects such as Jatki and Shahpuri.

Pahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of standard Punjabi. A point of departure from eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use oftrai (ترَے) instead oftinn (تِنّ) for "three". Other western Punjabi dialects also tend to usetrai overtinn.^[57]

Similarly, Pothwari, Majhi and other western Punjabi dialects use"yārā̃" (یاراں) for"gyarā̃" (گیاراں),"trei" (ترئی) for"tei" (تئی)"panji" (پنجِی) for"pachchi" (پچّی) and"trih"(ترِیہہ) for"tih" (تِیہہ), for the numbers 11, 23, 25, and 30.

Unlike Jhangochi, Shahpuri and Ghebi/Awankari/Dhanni, Pothohari does not use "dāh" for 10, and instead uses"das" as in Eastern Punjabi and Urdu/Hindi.

The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for "second" and "third". The former isdūwā (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it isdūjjā (دوجا) in Punjabi; the latter istrēyā (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it istējjā (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western Punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.

A majority of the general verbs between Pothohari and most other dialects of Punjabi appear to be the same.^[58]

Note:

• Eastern Majhi and Malvai usekhichchna for pulling, while western Majhi, Jhangochi, Shahpuri, Pothohari usechhikkna.
• Eastern dialects will usebhann-toṛ andtuṭṭ-bhajj, while western dialects like Pothohari usebhann-troṛ andtruṭṭ-bhajj.
• saṭṭna for throwing is used in Western dialects, andchāna for picking (as opposed to suṭṭna / chukkna), though Pothohari may use chukkna as well.
• Pothohari verbs do not seem to involve the -āvna or -āuna sound. This is similar to certain Majhi sub-dialects.
• labbhna is used for obtaining and receiving as in most dialects of Punjabi, however it is often not used in the active sense. For this Pothohari prefersloṛna. (The passive form of this word"loṛīnda" is commonly used in standard Punjabi)
• The Pothohari word for grabbing and holding isnappṅa (common in Punjabi) andlapaṛna (unique verb)

• bhanṅa (to break) andbhajjṅa (to be broken)
• bhunṅa (to roast) andbhujjṅa (to be roasted)
• rinnhṅa (to cook) andrijjhṅa (to be cooked)
• dolhṅa (to spill) anddullhṅa (to be spilt)
• lāhṅa (to take off) andlehṅa (to descend/come off)
• laveṛna (to besmear) andlivaṛna (to be besmeared)

Differences in brackets.

• khādhā
• pītā
• dittā
• kītā
• suttā
• moeā
• seāṅtā (Jhangochi/Shahpuri: seātā, Majhi: seāṅeā)
• latthā
• ḍhaṭṭhā
• baddhā
• nahātā
• dhotā
• khaltā (in other dialects:khalotā) e.g.:miki saṛke aparkhalteon addhā ghantā hoi gya sā
• baṅtā (in other dialects:baṅeā) e.g.:chāʼ kadū̃ nibanti hoi ae
• guddhā

Used throughout Punjabi dialects (e.g.: Majhi, Jhangochi, etc.)

• gall suṅeṉ na "please listen"
• gall suṅ khā̃ "listen up!"

Word for sleep

The names of family relations are mostly the same throughout the Punjabi dialects.

Some words unique to Pothohari include:

• dād-potrā to refer to a cousin (son of father's brother,potrā is a common Punjabi word)
• be for mother (eastern Punjabi usesbe-be for mother)
• bhāpā for brother (sometimes used in eastern Majhi)

Names of body parts are the same throughout Punjabi dialects with minimal differences.

The Pahari-Pothwari word for "coming" isacchṇā, whereas for "going"gacchṇā,julṇā andjāṇā are used.^[49]

The imperative forgacchṇā is bothgacch andgau.

Pahari-Pothwari causative verbs end with -ālnā.^[59] This feature also exists in the eastern Majhi dialect. (e.g.:vikhālṇā)

Not all causative verbs are formed like this, e.g. to play -kheṛṇā tokhaṛāṇa,

Commonly observed in theLahnda dialects is the use ofghinṇā (گھِننا)^[60][61] andānṇā (آننا)^[62][63] instead of the eastern Punjabi wordslaiṇā (لَینا) andlyāṇā (لیانا).

Notice howghin āo becomesghini achho, andghin ghidā becomesghini ghidā in accordance with Pothwari grammar and vocabulary.

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• Pahari Language Textbook for Class2
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class3
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class4
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class5
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class6
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class8 (Part A)
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class8 (Part B)

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