Apagoda is a tieredtower with multipleeaves, common inTibet,Thailand,Cambodia,Nepal,India,China,Japan,Korea,Myanmar,Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most oftenBuddhist, but sometimesTaoist orHindu, and were often in or nearviharas. The pagoda traces its origins to thestupa, while its design was developed inNepal'sKathmandu valley.[1] Chinese pagodas (Chinese:塔;pinyin:Tǎ) are a traditional part ofChinese architecture. In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been valued for the spectacular views they offer, and many classical poems attest to the joy of scaling pagodas.
The oldest and tallest pagodas were made of wood, but most that survived were made of brick or stone. Some are solid with no interior. Hollow pagodas have no higher floors or rooms, but the interior often contains an altar or a smaller pagoda, as well as a series of staircases for visitors to climb to see the view from an opening on one side of each tier. Most have between three and 13 tiers (almost always an odd number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves.[2][3]
In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia, due to French translation, the English termpagoda more generically refers to aplace of worship, althoughpagoda is not an accurate word for a Buddhistvihāra. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on diverse forms specific to each region. Many Philippine bell towers are highly influenced by pagodas through Chinese workers hired by theSpaniards.
One proposed etymology is from aSouth Chinese pronunciation of the term for an eight-cornered tower,八角塔 (bā jiǎo tǎ), and reinforced by the name of a famous pagoda encountered by many early European visitors to China, the"Pázhōu tǎ" (Chinese:琶洲塔), standing just south ofGuangzhou atWhampoa Anchorage.[4] Another proposed etymology isPersianbotkada, frombot, "idol" andkada, "temple, dwelling."[5]
Yet another etymology is from the Sinhala worddāgaba, derived from Sanskritdhātugarbha or Palidhātugabbha: "relic womb/chamber" or "reliquary shrine", i.e. astupa, by way of Portuguese.[6][failed verification]
Kek Lok Si pagoda tiers labelled with their architectural styles
The origin of the pagoda can be traced to thestupa (3rd century BCE).[7] The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument to house sacred relics and writings.[7][8] In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers andChinese pavilions blended into pagoda architecture, eventually also spreading to Southeast Asia. Their construction was popularized by the efforts ofBuddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to honor Buddhist relics.[9]
Japan has a total of 22 five-storied timber pagodas constructed before 1850.[10]
The earliest styles of Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base, withoctagonal-base towers emerging in the 5th–10th centuries. The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is theLiaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian,Hebei, completed in the year 1055 AD underEmperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100-metre-tall wooden pagoda (330 ft) ofChang'an, built byEmperor Yang of Sui,[11] and possibly the short-lived 6th centuryYongning Pagoda (永宁宝塔) ofLuoyang at roughly 137 metres. The tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing is the Liaodi Pagoda. In April 2007 a new wooden pagodaTianning Temple ofChangzhou was opened to the public, the tallest in China, standing 154 m (505 ft).
Some believed reverence at pagodas could bring luck to students taking the Chinese civil serviceexaminations.[15] When a pagoda of Yihuang County inFuzhou collapsed in 1210, local inhabitants believed the disaster correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations[16] The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural favor.[16]
Floor-support structure in a corner of theHoryuji temple.
Pagodas come in many different sizes,[17] with taller ones often attractinglightning strikes, inspiring a tradition that thefinial decoration of the top of the structure can seize demons.[18] Today many pagodas have been fitted with wires making the finial into alightning rod.[19]
Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics thought to resist earthquake damage. These include the friction damping andsliding effect of the complex woodendougong joints,[20] the structural isolation of floors, the effects of wide eaves analogous to a balancing toy, and theShinbashira phenomenon that the center column is bolted to the rest of the superstructure.[21]
The 40-metre-tall (130 ft)Songyue Pagoda of 523 AD, the oldest extant stone pagoda in China
During theSouthern and Northern dynasties, pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, and no Japanese pagoda has been destroyed by an earthquake,[21] but they are prone to fire, natural rot, and insect infestation.
The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction. The famousTang dynasty poet,Du Mu, once wrote:
480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties, uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain.[clarification needed]
During theNorthern Wei andSui dynasties (386–618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example,Emperor Wen of theSui dynasty (reigned 581–604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only theSongyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of brick in 523 AD.
The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre (130 ft) tallSongyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country,Henan.[23] This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during theNorthern Wei dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries.[23] Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as aspire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 metres (35 ft). Another early brick pagoda is theSui dynastyGuoqing Pagoda built in 597.
The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is aFour Gates Pagoda atLicheng, Shandong, built in 611 during theSui dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.
One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first)Jin dynasty (266–420), byWang Jun ofXiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.
Brick and stone went on to dominateTang,Song,Liao andJin dynasty pagoda construction. An example is theGiant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang dynasty. ThePorcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history.The Zhou dynasty started making the ancient pagodas about 3,500 years ago.
Jade Buddha Temple in Shanghai follows the Song dynasty multi-courtyard design, and does not feature a pagoda. The main hall is at the center.
Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of theWhite Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until theSui andTang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang,Daoxuan wrote aStandard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.
The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.
In theSong dynasty (960–1279), theChan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The seven parts—the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities—completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by theWhite Horse Temple in 67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the twoMing dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda inJingyang ofShaanxi.
A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing'sYonghe Temple, which was the residence ofYongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.
Examples of Han dynasty era tower architecture predating Buddhist influence and the full-fledged Chinese pagoda can be seen in the four pictures below. Michael Loewe writes that during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) period, multi-storied towers were erected for religious purposes, asastronomical observatories, aswatchtowers, or as ornate buildings that were believed to attract the favor ofspirits, deities, and immortals.[24]
Ancient Chinese model of two residential towers, made ofearthenware during theHan dynasty, 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD, excavated by archaeologists in 1993.
Side view of a Han pottery tower model with a mid-floor balcony and a courtyard gatehouse flanked by smaller towers; thedougong support brackets are clearly visible.
A Western-Han model of a watchtower with human figures on its balconies (including crossbowmen) and a gatehouse and courtyard on the first floor.
Among a large set of architectural models, three Eastern Han dynasty watchtowers stand in the rear of this display.
Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:
Seokgatap onBulguksa, Gyeongju, South Korea, built in 751, made of granite. In 1966, theMugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra, the oldest extant woodblock print, was found with several other treasures in the second story of this pagoda.
Prashar Lake temple, dedicated to theRishi Prashar, the patron of theMandi region in India. The temple was constructed by RajaBan Sen in the 14th century, with the rishi being present in the form of apindi stone.
Pagoda Avalokitesvara, Indonesia, tallest pagoda in Indonesia, stands at 45 meters, built in 2004.
Sun and Moon Pagodas inGuilin, Guangxi, China, twin pagodas onShan Lake, originally built in the 10th century and reconstructed using historical description on the original foundation in 2001
Shwedagon Pagoda, a 98-metre (322 ft) gilded pagoda andstupa located inYangon, Myanmar. It is the most sacred Buddhist pagoda for the Burmese with relics of the past fourBuddhas enshrined within.
TheDragon House of Sanssouci Park, an eighteenth-century German attempt at imitating Chinese architecture
The Panasonic Pagoda, or Pagoda Tower, at theIndianapolis Motor Speedway. This 13-story pagoda, used as the control tower for races such as theIndy 500, has been transformed several times since it was first built in 1913.[25]
Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai, built between 1994 and 1999
Wooden three-story pagoda ofIchijō-ji in Japan, built in 1171
Yingde pagoda, Qingyuan, Guangdong Province, China, from Johan Nieuhof (1618–1672); Jean-Baptiste Le Carpentier (1606 – c. 1670): L'ambassade de la Compagnie Orientale des Provinces Unies vers l'Empereur de la Chine, 1665
^Chinese Origin of the Term Pagoda: Liang Sicheng's Proposed EtymologyAuthors: David Robbins TienPublication: Acta Orientalia, volume 77 (2016), pp 133–144David Robbins Tien, Gerald Leonard CohenPublication: Arts, Languages and Philosophy Faculty Research & Creative WorksDownloadTien, D. R., & Cohen, G. L. (2017)http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/artlan_phil_facwork. David Robbins Tien. Comments on Etymology, October 2014, Vol.44, no. 1, pp. 2–6.
^Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary by Henry Yule & Arthur Coke Burnell, first printed 1896, reprinted by Wordsworth Editions, 1996, p. 291.Online Etymology Dictionary by Douglas Harper, s.v.pagoda, athttp://www.etymonline.com/ (Accessed 29 April 2016)
Fu, Xinian. (2002). "The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties," inChinese Architecture, 61–90. Edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt. New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-09559-7.
Govinda, A. B.Psycho-cosmic symbolism of the Buddhist stupa. 1976, Emeryville, California. Dharma Publications.
Hymes, Robert P. (1986). Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-30631-0.
Kieschnick, John.The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. Published 2003. Princeton University Press .ISBN0-691-09676-7.
Loewe, Michael. (1968).Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1997).Liao Architecture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
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