Packaging is thescience,art andtechnology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing,logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells.[1][2] In many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and for personal use.
Package labeling (American English) orlabelling (British English) is any written, electronic, orgraphic communication on the package or on a separate but associatedlabel. Many countries or regions have regulations governing the content of package labels. Merchandising, branding, and persuasive graphics are not covered in this article.
The first packages used the natural materials available at the time:baskets of reeds, wineskins (bota bags),wooden boxes, potteryvases, ceramicamphorae, woodenbarrels, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed: firstglass andbronze vessels. The study of old packages is an essential aspect ofarchaeology.
Sheets of treated mulberry bark were used by theChinese to wrap foods as early as the first or second century BC.[3] The usage of paper-like material in Europe occurred when theRomans used low grade and recycledpapyrus for the packaging ofincense.[4] In 1035, aPersian traveller visiting markets inCairo,Arab Egypt, noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[4]
The use oftinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century. The manufacturing of tinplate was themonopoly ofBohemia for a long time; in 1667Andrew Yarranton, an Englishengineer, andAmbrose Crowley brought the method toEngland where it was improved by ironmasters includingPhilip Foley.[5][6] By 1697,John Hanbury[7] had a rolling mill atPontypool for making "Pontypool Plates".[8][9] The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the former practice ofhammering.
Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in theBristol Channel in 1725. The tinplate was shipped fromNewport, Monmouthshire.[10] By 1805, 80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported.Tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards.
With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers forfood preservation by French inventorNicholas Appert, the tin canning process was patented by British merchantPeter Durand in 1810.[11] After receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. He sold his patent in 1812 to two other Englishmen,Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for theRoyal Navy.[12]
The progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of thecan opener. Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road,Middlesex, UK, devised a claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans.[13] In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States byEzra Warner ofWaterbury, Connecticut.
Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modernfolding cartons date back to 1839. The firstcorrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England.Corrugated (also called pleated) paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats. Scottish-bornRobert Gair invented the pre-cutpaperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's invention came about as a result of an accident: as aBrooklyn printer andpaper bag maker during the 1870s, he was once printing an order of seed bags, and the metal ruler, commonly used to crease bags, shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes.[14]
Commercial paper bags were first manufactured inBristol,England, in 1844, and the AmericanFrancis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852.
Packaging advancements in the early 20th century includedBakelite closures onbottles, transparentcellophane overwraps and panels oncartons. These innovations increased processing efficiency and improvedfood safety. As additional materials such asaluminum and severaltypes of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and functionality.[15]
In 1952,Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree inPackaging Engineering.[16]
In-plant recycling has long been typical for producing packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper-based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due tocurbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.
Many prominent innovations in the packaging industry were developed first for military use. Some military supplies are packaged in the same commercial packaging used for general industry. Other military packaging must transportmateriel, supplies, foods, etc. under severe distribution and storage conditions. Packaging problems encountered inWorld War II led toMilitary Standard or "mil spec" regulations being applied to packaging, which was then designated "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due tooperations in Iceland experiencing critical losses, ultimately attributed to bad packaging. In most cases, mil spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials,field rations,antistatic bags, and variousshipping crates) are similar to commercial grade packaging materials, but subject to more stringent performance and quality requirements.[17]
As of 2003[update], the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of thegross national product indeveloped countries. About half of this market was related tofood packaging.[18]In 2019 the global food packaging market size was estimated at USD 303.26 billion, exhibiting a CAGR of 5.2% over the forecast period. Growing demand for packaged food by consumers owing to a quickening pace of life and changing eating habits is expected to have a major impact on the market.
Packaging and package labeling have several objectives[19]
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There are many types of packaging. For example, atransport package ordistribution package can be theshipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify aconsumer package as one which is directed towards a person or household.
Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged:medical device packaging, bulkchemical packaging,over-the-counter drug packaging, retailfood packaging, militarymateriel packaging,pharmaceutical packaging, etc.
It is sometimes useful to categorize packages by layer or function:
These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary and the same packaging material can be used for each layer. For example,shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when used to combine smaller packages, or tertiary packaging when used to facilitate some types of distribution, such as to affix a number of cartons on a pallet.
Packaging can also have categories based on the package form. For example,thermoform packaging andflexible packaging describe broad usage areas.
Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications (such as theFCC andTÜV marks),trademarks,proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer rights and safety, for example theCE marking or theestimated sign that notes conformance to EU weights and measures accuracy regulations. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include therecycling symbol, therecycling code (which could be aresin identification code), and the"Green Dot". Food packaging may showfood contact material symbols. In theEuropean Union, products of animal origin which are intended to be consumed by humans have to carry standard, oval-shapedEC identification and health marks for food safety and quality insurance reasons.
Bar codes,Universal Product Codes, andRFID labels are common to allow automated information management inlogistics andretailing.Country-of-origin labeling is often used. Some products might useQR codes or similarmatrix barcodes. Packaging may have visibleregistration marks and other printing calibration and troubleshooting cues.
The labelling ofmedical devices includes lots of symbols, many of them covered by international standards, foremost ISO 15223-1.
Several aspects of consumer package labeling are subject to regulation. One of the most important is to accurately state the quantity (weight, volume, count) of the package contents. Consumers expect that the label accurately reflects the actual contents. Manufacturers and packagers must have effectivequality assurance procedures and accurate equipment.
In the US, theFair Packaging and Labeling Act provides regulatory requirements for many types of products. Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods is a procedural guide for compliance testing of net contents, produced byNIST.[25]
Other regions and countries have their own regulatory requirements. For example, the UK has its Weights and Measures (Packaged Goods) Regulations[26] as well as severalother regulations. In theEEA, products with hazardous formulas need to have aUFI.
Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes,bar codes, and electronic data interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has an essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.
Elements of these core technologies includeUPC andEAN item identification codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designatedGS1-128) bar codesymbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.
Small parcel carriers often have their own formats. For example,United Parcel Service has aMaxiCode 2-D code for parcel tracking.
RFID labels for shipping containers are also increasingly used. AWal-Mart division,Sam's Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers to comply.[27]
Shipments ofhazardous materials ordangerous goods have special information and symbols (labels, placards, etc.) as required by the UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. On transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some are defined in theASTM D5445 andISO 780 Pictorial marking for handling of goods, andGHS hazard pictograms.
Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of thenew product development process. Alternatively, the development of a package (or component) can be a separate process but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design,marketing,shelf life,quality assurance,logistics, legal, regulatory,graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The design criteria, performance (specified bypackage testing), completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon. Package design processes often employrapid prototyping,computer-aided design,computer-aided manufacturing anddocument automation.
An example of how package design is affected by other factors is its relationship tologistics. When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorting, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletizedunit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to meet those specific needs, such as vertical stacking for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited to another.
With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the packaging. For example, any package components that may have direct contact withfood are designatedfood contact materials.[28]Toxicologists andfood scientists need to verify that such packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations.Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intendedshelf life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to bevalidated to assure that they comply with regulations that have the wellbeing of the consumer in mind.
Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, regulations for anover-the-counter drug might require the package to betamper-evident andchild resistant:[29] These intentionally make the package difficult to open.[30] The intended consumer, however, might be disabled or elderly and unable to open the package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.
Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of externalpackaging engineering:independent contractors,consultants, vendor evaluations, laboratories, contract packagers, totaloutsourcing, etc. Some sort of formalproject planning andproject management methodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development programs. Using an effectivequality management system andverification and validation protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.
Package development involves considerations ofsustainability, environmental responsibility, and applicableenvironmental andrecycling regulations. It may involve alife cycle assessment[31][32] which considers the material and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, thelogistics system,[33]waste management, etc. It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.
The traditional "three R's" of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of awaste hierarchy which may be considered in product and package development.
For elements that cannot be reused or recycled, incineration and placement in a sanitary landfill are undertaken. Certain US states regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the potential to contaminate emissions and ash from incineration and leachate from landfill. Packages should not be littered.
Development ofsustainable packaging is an area of considerable interest tostandards organizations, governments, consumers, packagers, and retailers.
Sustainability is the fastest-growing driver for packaging development,[citation needed] particularly for packaging manufacturers who work with the world's leading brands, as their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) targets often exceed those of theEU Directive.
Choosing packaging machinery includes an assessment of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety,maintainability, serviceability,reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, multiple products, etc.), energy requirements,quality of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity,ergonomics,return on investment, etc.
Packaging machinery can be:
Efforts at packaging lineautomation increasingly useprogrammable logic controllers androbotics.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
![Equipment used for making molded pulp components and molding packaging from straw[39]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMolding_packaging_from_straw%2c_k9837-1.jpg)
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