Apeace sign, which is widely associated with pacifism.World Day of Prayer for Peace inAssisi, 2011
Pacifism is the opposition towar orviolence. The wordpacifism was coined by the French peace campaignerÉmile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress inGlasgow in 1901.[1] A related term isahimsa (to do no harm), which is a core philosophy inHinduism,Buddhism, andJainism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, ancient references abound.
Pacifism covers a spectrum of views, including the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved, calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war, opposition to any organization of society through governmental force (anarchist or libertarian pacifism), rejection of the use of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals, the obliteration of force, and opposition to violence under any circumstance, even defence of self and others. Historians of pacifismPeter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism "in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas" as "an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare".[4] PhilosopherJenny Teichman defines the main form of pacifism as "anti-warism", the rejection of all forms of warfare.[5] Teichman's beliefs have been summarized byBrian Orend as "A pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong." In a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means.[6] The wordpacific denotes conciliatory.[7]
Anti-war activist arrested inSan Francisco during the March 2003 protests against the war in Iraq
Pacifism may be based onmoral principles (adeontological view) orpragmatism (aconsequentialist view). Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.
Some pacifists follow principles ofnonviolence, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others. Others supportdestruction of property in such emergencies or for conducting symbolic acts of resistance like pouring red paint to represent blood on the outside of military recruiting offices or entering air force bases and hammering on military aircraft.
Not allnonviolent resistance (sometimes also calledcivil resistance) is based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists. Sometimes, as with the civil rights movement's march fromSelma to Montgomery in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex.[8]
An absolute pacifist is described by theBBC as one who believes that human life is so valuable, that a human should never be killed and war should never be conducted, even in self-defense (except for non-violence type). The principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to more undesirable results than non-violence.[9]
Tapping intojust war theoryconditional pacifism represents a spectrum of positions departing from positions of absolute pacifism. One such conditional pacifism is the commonpacificism, which may allow defense but is not advocating a defaultdefensivism[10] or eveninterventionism.
In the 1960s, some pacifists associated with theNew Left supportedwars of national liberation and supported groups such as theViet Cong and the AlgerianFLN, arguing peaceful attempts to liberate such nations were no longer viable, and war was thus the only option.[14]
During theWarring States period in China, the pacifistMohist School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states, using their famed defensive strategies to defend smaller states from invasion from larger states, hoping to dissuade feudal lords from costly warfare. TheSeven Military Classics of ancient China view warfare negatively, and as a last resort. For example, theThree Strategies of Huang Shigong says: "As for the military, it is not an auspicious instrument; it is the way of heaven to despise it", and theWei Liaozi writes: "As for the military, it is an inauspicious instrument; as for conflict and contention, it runs counter to virtue".[15] TheTaoist scripture "Classic of Great Peace (Taiping jing)" foretells "the coming Age of Great Peace (Taiping)".[16] TheTaiping Jing advocates "a world full of peace".[17]
TheLemba religion of southern French Congo, along with its symbolic herb, is named for pacifism : "lemba, lemba" (peace, peace), describes the action of the plantlemba-lemba (Brillantaisia patula T. Anders).[18] Likewise in Cabinda, "Lemba is the spirit of peace, as its name indicates."[19]
TheMoriori, of theChatham Islands, practiced pacifism by order of their ancestorNunuku-whenua. This enabled the Moriori to preserve what limited resources they had in their harsh climate, avoiding waste through warfare. In turn, this led to their almost complete annihilation in 1835 by invadingNgāti Mutunga andNgāti TamaMāori from theTaranaki region of theNorth Island of New Zealand. The invading Māori killed, enslaved andcannibalised the Moriori. A Moriori survivor recalled : "[The Maori] commenced to kill us like sheep ... [We] were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed – men, women and children indiscriminately."[20]
InAncient Greece, pacifism seems not to have existed except as a broad moral guideline against violence between individuals.Aristophanes, in his playLysistrata, creates the scenario of anAthenian woman's anti-war sex strike during thePeloponnesian War of 431–404 BCE, and the play has gained an international reputation for its anti-war message. Nevertheless, it is both fictional and comical, and its message seems to stem from frustration with the existing conflict (then in its twentieth year) rather than from a philosophical position against violence or war. Equally fictional is the nonviolent protest ofHegetorides ofThasos.Euripides also expressed strong anti-war ideas in his work, especiallyThe Trojan Women.[21] InPlato's RepublicSocrates makes the pacifistic argument that a just person would not harm anyone.[22] InPlato's earlier workCrito Socrates asserts that it is not moral to return evil with further evil, an original moral conception, according toGregory Vlastos, that undermines all justifications for war and violence.[23]
Throughout history many have understoodJesus of Nazareth to have been a pacifist,[27] drawing on hisSermon on the Mount. In the sermon Jesus stated that one should "not resist an evildoer" and promoted histurn the other cheek philosophy. "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well ... Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you."[28][29][30] When one of his apostles drew a sword to defend Jesus, Jesus told him, "Put your sword back into its place.For all who take the sword will perish by the sword" (Matthew 26:52).[31]
There are those, however, who deny that Jesus was a pacifist[27] and state that Jesus never said not to fight,[30] citing examples from the New Testament. One such instance portrays an angry Jesus driving dishonest markettraders from the temple.[30] A frequently quoted passage is Luke 22:36: "He said to them, 'But now, the one who has a purse must take it, and likewise a bag. And the one who has no sword mustsell his cloak and buy one.'" Pacifists have typically explained that verse as Jesus fulfilling prophecy, since in the next verse, Jesus continues to say: "It is written: 'And he was numbered with the transgressors'; and I tell you that this must be fulfilled in me. Yes, what is written about me is reaching its fulfillment." Others have interpreted the non-pacifist statements in the New Testament to be related toself-defense or to be metaphorical and state that on no occasion did Jesus shed blood or urge others to shed blood.[27]
TheQuakers were prominent advocates of pacifism, who as early as 1660 had repudiated violence in all forms and adhered to a strictly pacifist interpretation ofChristianity.[33] Throughout the many 18th century wars in whichGreat Britain participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitmentnot to serve in the army and militia or even to pay the alternative £10 fine. The English QuakerWilliam Penn, who founded theProvince of Pennsylvania, employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with theNative Americans, including for land. The colonial province was, for the 75 years from 1681 to 1756, essentially unarmed and experienced little or no warfare in that period.
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politicianDuc de Sully, the philosophersÉmeric Crucé and theAbbe de Saint-Pierre, and the English Quakers William Penn andJohn Bellers.[34][35]
Pacifist ideals emerged from two strands of thought that coalesced at the end of the 18th century. One, rooted in the secularEnlightenment, promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world's ills, while the other was a part of theevangelical religious revival that had played an important part in the campaign for theabolition of slavery. Representatives of the former includedJean-Jacques Rousseau, inExtrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre (1756),[36]Immanuel Kant, in hisThoughts on Perpetual Peace,[37] andJeremy Bentham who proposed the formation of a peace association in 1789. Representative of the latter, wasWilliam Wilberforce who thought that strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in theFrench Revolutionary Wars based on Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood.BohemianBernard Bolzano taught about the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social, and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, pacifism was not entirely frowned upon throughout Europe. It was considered a political stance against costly capitalist-imperialist wars, a notion particularly popular in theBritish Liberal Party of the twentieth century.[38] However, during the eras ofWorld War One and especiallyWorld War Two, public opinion on the ideology split. Those against the Second World War, some argued, were not fighting against unnecessary wars of imperialism but instead acquiescing to thefascists ofGermany,Italy andJapan.[39]
During the period of theNapoleonic Wars, although no formalpeace movement was established until the end of hostilities, a significant peace movement animated by universalist ideals did emerge, due to the perception of Britain fighting in areactionary role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the welfare of the nation in the form of higher taxation levels and high casualty rates. Sixteen peace petitions toParliament were signed by members of the public, anti-war and anti-Pitt demonstrations convened and peace literature was widely published and disseminated.[40]
"Peace". Caricature ofHenry Richard, a prominent advocate of pacifism in the mid-19th century
The first peace movements appeared in 1815–16. In the United States the first such movement was theNew York Peace Society, founded in 1815 by the theologianDavid Low Dodge, and theMassachusetts Peace Society. It became an active organization, holding regular weekly meetings, and producing literature which was spread as far asGibraltar and Malta, describing the horrors of war and advocating pacificism onChristian grounds.[41] TheLondon Peace Society (also known as the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace) was formed in 1816 to promote permanent and universal peace by thephilanthropistWilliam Allen. In the 1840s, British women formed "Olive Leaf Circles", groups of around 15 to 20 women, to discuss and promote pacifist ideas.[42]
The peace movement began to grow in influence by the mid-nineteenth century.[43] The London Peace Society, under the initiative of American consulElihu Burritt and the reverendHenry Richard, convened the firstInternational Peace Congress in London in 1843.[44] The congress decided on two aims: the ideal of peaceable arbitration in the affairs of nations and the creation of an international institution to achieve that.Richard became the secretary of the Peace Society in 1850 on a full-time basis, a position which he would keep for the next 40 years, earning himself a reputation as the 'Apostle of Peace'. He helped secure one of the earliest victories for the peace movement by securing a commitment from theGreat Powers in theTreaty of Paris (1856) at the end of theCrimean War, in favour of arbitration. On the European continent, wracked bysocial upheaval, the first peace congress was held inBrussels in 1848 followed byParis a year later.[45]
An important thinker who contributed to pacifist ideology was Russian writerLeo Tolstoy. In one of his latter works,The Kingdom of God Is Within You, Tolstoy provides a detailed history, account and defense of pacifism. Tolstoy's work inspired amovement named after him advocating pacifism to arise in Russia and elsewhere.[46] The book was a major early influence onMahatma Gandhi, and the two engaged in regular correspondence while Gandhi was active in South Africa.[47]
Bertha von Suttner, the first woman to be aNobel Peace Prize laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel,Die Waffen nieder! ("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.
"Leading Citizens want War and declare War; Citizens Who are Led fight the War" 1910 cartoon
Incolonial New Zealand, during the latter half of the 19th centuryEuropean settlers used numerous tactics to confiscate land from the indigenousMāori, includingwarfare. In the 1870s and 1880s,Parihaka, then reported to be the largest Māori settlement in New Zealand, became the centre of a major campaign of non-violent resistance to land confiscations. One Māori leader,Te Whiti-o-Rongomai, quickly became the leading figure in the movement, stating in a speech that "Though some, in darkness of heart, seeing their land ravished, might wish to take arms and kill the aggressors, I say it must not be. Let not the Pakehas think to succeed by reason of their guns... I want not war". Te Whiti-o-Rongomai achieved renown for his non-violent tactics among the Māori, which proved more successful in preventing land confiscations than acts of violent resistance.[48]
Mahatma Gandhi was a major political and spiritual leader of India, instrumental in theIndian independence movement. The Nobel prize winning great poetRabindranath Tagore, who was also an Indian, gave him the honorific "Mahatma", usually translated "Great Soul". He was the pioneer of a brand of nonviolence (orahimsa) which he calledsatyagraha – translated literally as "truth force". This was the resistance of tyranny through civil disobedience that was not only nonviolent but also sought to change the heart of the opponent. He contrasted this withduragraha, "resistant force", which sought only to change behaviour with stubborn protest. During his 30 years of work (1917–1947) for the independence of his country fromBritish colonial rule, Gandhi led dozens of nonviolent campaigns, spent over seven years in prison, andfasted nearly to the death on several occasions to obtain British compliance with a demand or to stop inter-communal violence. His efforts helped lead India to independence in 1947, and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom worldwide.
Peace movements became active in the Western world after 1900, often focusing on treaties that would settle disputes through arbitration, and efforts to support the Hague conventions.[49]
The sudden outbreak of theFirst World War in July 1914 dismayed the peace movement. Socialist parties in every industrial nation had committed themselves to antiwar policies, but when the war came, all of them, except in Russia and the United States, supported their own governments. There were highly publicized dissidents, some of whom were imprisoned for opposing draft laws, such asEugene Debs in the U.S.[50] In Britain, the prominent activistStephen Henry Hobhouse was jailed for refusing military service, citing his convictions as a "socialist and a Christian".[51] Manysocialist groups and movements wereantimilitarist, arguing that war by its nature was a type of governmental coercion of theworking class for the benefit ofcapitalist elites. The French socialist pacifist leaderJean Jaurès was assassinated by a nationalist fanatic on 31 July 1914. The national parties in theSecond International increasingly supported their respective nations in war, and the International was dissolved in 1916.
A World War I-era female peace protester
In 1915, theLeague of Nations Society was formed by Britishliberal leaders to promote a strong international organisation that could enforce the peaceful resolution of conflict. Later that year, theLeague to Enforce Peace was established in the U.S. to promote similar goals.Hamilton Holt published a 28 September 1914, editorial in his magazine theIndependent called "The Way to Disarm: A Practical Proposal" that called for an international organization to agree upon the arbitration of disputes and to guarantee the territorial integrity of its members by maintaining military forces sufficient to defeat those of any non-member. The ensuing debate among prominent internationalists modified Holt's plan to align it more closely with proposals offered in Great Britain byViscount James Bryce, a former British ambassador to the United States.[52] These and other initiatives were pivotal in the change in attitudes that gave birth to theLeague of Nations after the war.
The soldiers of the Red Army in Russia, who on religious grounds refused to shoot at the target (evangelicals or Baptists). Between 1918 and 1929
After the immense loss of nearly ten million men totrench warfare,[55] a sweeping change of attitude towardmilitarism crashed over Europe, particularly in nations such as Great Britain, where many questioned its involvement in the war. After World War I's official end in 1918, peace movements across the continent and the United States renewed, gradually gaining popularity among young Europeans who grew up in the shadow of Europe's trauma over the Great War. Organizations formed in this period included theWar Resisters' International,[56] theWomen's International League for Peace and Freedom, theNo More War Movement, theService Civil International and thePeace Pledge Union (PPU). TheLeague of Nations also convened several disarmament conferences in the interbellum period such as theGeneva Conference, though the support that pacifist policy and idealism received varied across European nations. These organizations and movements attracted tens of thousands of Europeans, spanning most professions including "scientists, artists, musicians, politicians, clerks, students, activists and thinkers."[57]
Pacifism and revulsion with war were very popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. Novels and poems on the theme of the futility of war and the slaughter of the youth by old fools were published, including,Death of a Hero byRichard Aldington,Erich Remarque's translatedAll Quiet on the Western Front andBeverley Nichols's exposeCry Havoc. A debate at theUniversity of Oxford in 1933 on the motion 'one must fight for King and country' captured the changed mood when the motion was resoundingly defeated.Dick Sheppard established thePeace Pledge Union in 1934, which totally renounced war and aggression. The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression, but preferably with the use of economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations.[58] Many members of the Peace Pledge Union later joined theBruderhof[59] during its period of residence in the Cotswolds, where Englishmen and Germans, many of whom were Jewish, lived side by side despite local persecution.[60]
The BritishLabour Party had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s, and between 1931 and 1935 it was led byGeorge Lansbury, a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to "pledge itself to take no part in war". Researcher Richard Toye writes that "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left,Stafford Cripps's small but vocalSocialist League opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'."[61]
Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced byClement Attlee.[62] As the threat fromNazi Germany increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported rearmament, largely as the result of the efforts ofErnest Bevin andHugh Dalton, who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to opposeNeville Chamberlain's policy ofappeasement.[63]
TheLeague of Nations attempted to play its role in ensuring world peace in the 1920s and 1930s. However, with the increasingly revisionist and aggressive behaviour of Nazi Germany,Fascist Italy andImperial Japan, it ultimately failed to maintain such a world order.Economic sanctions were used against states that committed aggression, such as those against Italy when itinvaded Abyssinia, but there was no will on the part of the principal League powers, Britain and France, to subordinate their interests to a multilateral process or to disarm at all themselves.
As the prospect of a second major war began to seem increasingly inevitable, much of France adopted pacifist views, though some historians argue that France felt more war anxiety than a moral objection to a second war. Hitler's spreading influence and territory posed an enormous threat to French livelihood from their neighbors. The French countryside had been devastated during World War I and the entire nation was reluctant to subject its territory to the same treatment. Though all countries in the First World War had suffered great losses, France was one of the most devastated and many did not want a second war.[66]
As Germany dealt with the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, a conflict arose in the 1930s between German Christianity and German nationalism. Many Germans found the terms of the treaty debilitating and humiliating, so German nationalism offered a way to regain the country's pride. German Christianity warned against the risks of entering a war similar to the previous one. As the German depression worsened and fascism began to rise in Germany, a greater tide of Germans began to sway toward Hitler's brand of nationalism that would come to crush pacifism.[67]
With the start ofWorld War II, pacifist and antiwar sentiment declined in nations affected by the war. Even the communist-controlledAmerican Peace Mobilization reversed its antiwar activism once Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. After theJapanese attack on Pearl Harbor, thenon-interventionistAmerica First Committee dropped its opposition to American involvement in the war and disbanded,[68] but many smaller religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to war.
Bertrand Russell argued that the necessity of defeatingAdolf Hitler and theNazis was a unique circumstance in which war was not the worst of the possible evils; he called his positionrelative pacifism. Shortly before the outbreak of war, British writers such asE. M. Forster,Leonard Woolf,David Garnett andStorm Jameson all rejected their earlier pacifism and endorsed military action against Nazism.[69] Similarly,Albert Einstein wrote: "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence; yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer the only effective protection."[70] The British pacifistsReginald Sorensen andC. J. Cadoux, while bitterly disappointed by the outbreak of war, nevertheless urged their fellow pacifists "not to obstruct the war effort."[71]
Pacifists across Great Britain further struggled to uphold their anti-military values during theBlitz, a coordinated, long-term attack by theLuftwaffe on Great Britain. As the country was ravaged nightly by German bombing raids, pacifists had to seriously weigh the importance of their political and moral values against the desire to protect their nation.[72]
Some scholars theorize that pacifism was the cause of France's rapid fall to the Germans after it wasinvaded by the Nazis in June 1940, resulting in a takeover of the government by the German military. Whether or not pacifism weakened French defenses against the Germans, there was no hope of sustaining a real pacifist movement after Paris fell. Just as peaceful Germans succumbed to violent nationalism, the pacifist French were muzzled by the totality of German control over nearly all of France.[73]
Pacifists inNazi Germany were dealt with harshly, reducing the movement into almost nonexistence; those who continued to advocate for the end of the war and violence were often sent to labor camps; German pacifistCarl von Ossietzky[76] andOlaf Kullmann, a Norwegian pacifist active during the Nazi occupation,[77] were both imprisoned in concentration camps and died as a result of their mistreatment there. Austrian farmerFranz Jägerstätter was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in theWehrmacht.[78]
German nationalism consumed even the most peaceful of Christians, who may have believed that Hitler was acting in the good faith of Germany or who may have been so suppressed by the Nazi regime that they were content to act as bystanders to the violence occurring around them.Dietrich Bonhoeffer, an anti-Nazi German pastor who later died in 1945 in theFlossenbürg concentration camp, once wrote in a letter to his grandmother: "The issue really is: Germanism or Christianity."[79]
During the two world wars, young men conscripted into the military, but who refused to take up arms, were called conscientious objectors. Though these men had to either answer their conscription or face prison time, their status as conscientious objectors permitted them to refuse to take part in battle using weapons, and the military was forced to find a different use for them. Often, these men were assigned various tasks close to battle such as medical duties, though some were assigned various civilian jobs including farming, forestry, hospital work and mining.[82] Conscientious objectors were often viewed by soldiers as cowards and liars, and they were sometimes accused of shirking military duty out of fear rather than as the result of conscience. In Great Britain during World War II, the majority of the public did not approve of moral objection by soldiers but supported their right to abstain from direct combat. On the more extreme sides of public opinion were those who fully supported the objectors and those who believed they should be executed as traitors.[82] The World War II objectors were often scorned as fascist sympathizers and traitors, though many of them cited the influence of World War I and theirshell shocked fathers as major reasons for refusing to participate.[83]
A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at ananti-Vietnam War protest, 1967.Protest against the deployment ofPershing II missiles in Europe, Bonn, West Germany, 1981
In 1960,Thich Nhat Hanh came to the U.S. to studycomparative religion atPrinceton University and was subsequently appointed a lecturer in Buddhism atColumbia University. Nhất Hạnh had written a letter to King in 1965 entitled "Searching for the Enemy of Man" and met with King in 1966 to urge him to publicly denounce theVietnam War.[3] In a famous 1967 speech atRiverside Church in New York City,[84] King publicly questioned the U.S. involvement in Vietnam for the first time.
On 1 December 1948, PresidentJosé Figueres Ferrer of Costa Rica abolished theCosta Rican military.[85] In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing healthcare services and education.[86]
Within the halls of academe, several philosophers endeavored to demonstrate that the theoretical principles underlying secular pacifism could be successfully applied in order to resolve several unique forms of international conflict which emerged as the 20th century came to a close. Included in this group isRobert L. Holmes, who illustrates that four principles of "moral personalism" can be utilized within the context of bothnuclear war andterrorism in order to promote an ethically viable outcome.[87][88][89][90] He further argues that waging war in the modern era is unjustifiable when considered in its totality and that by transcending the particular perceptions of injustice in a conflict it is possible to be a "pragmatic pacifist".[91]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of theBaháʼí Faith abolishedholy war and emphasized its abolition as a central teaching of his faith.[93] However, the Baháʼí Faith does not have an absolute pacifistic position. For example, Baháʼís are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, theBaháʼí law ofloyalty to one's government is preferred and the individual should perform the army service.[94][95]Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, noted that in the Baháʼí view, absolute pacifists are anti-social and exalt the individual over society which could lead to anarchy; instead he noted that the Baháʼí conception of social life follows a moderate view where the individual is not suppressed or exalted.[96]
On the level of society, Bahá'u'lláh promotes the principle ofcollective security, which does not abolish the use of force, but prescribes "a system in which Force is made the servant of Justice".[97] The idea of collective security from the Bahá'í teachings states that if a government violates a fundamental norm of international law or provision of a futureworld constitution which Bahá'ís believe will be established by all nations, then the other governments should step in.[98]
Ahimsa (do no harm), is a primary virtue in Buddhism (as well as other Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism).[99] This leads to a misconception that Buddhism is a religion based solely on peace; however, like all religions, there is a long history of violence in various Buddhist traditions and many examples of prolonged violence in its 2,500-year existence. Like many religious scholars and believers of other religions, many Buddhists disavow any connection between their religion and the violence committed in its name or by its followers, and find various ways of dealing with problematic texts.[100]
Peace churches are Christian denominations explicitly advocating pacifism. The term "historic peace churches" refers specifically to three church traditions: theChurch of the Brethren, theMennonites (and otherAnabaptists, such as theAmish,Hutterites andApostolic Christian Church),[109] as well as theQuakers (Religious Society of Friends). The historic peace churches have, from their origins as far back as the 16th century, always taken the position thatJesus was himself a pacifist who explicitly taught and practiced pacifism, and that his followers must do likewise. Pacifist churches vary on whether physical force can ever be justified inself-defense or protecting others, as many adhere strictly tononresistance when confronted by violence. But all agree that violence on behalf of a country or a government is prohibited for Christians.
We feel bound explicitly to avow our unshaken persuasion that War is utterly incompatible with the plain precepts of our divine Lord and Law-giver, and with the whole spirit of the Gospel; and that no plea of necessity or policy, however urgent or peculiar, can avail to release either individuals or nations for the paramount allegiance which they owe to Him who hath said, "Love your enemies." Therefore, we cannot participate in war (Rom. 12:19), war activities, or compulsory training.[113]
Jay Beaman's thesis[115] states that 13 of 21, or 62% of American Pentecostal groups formed by 1917 show evidence of being pacifist sometime in their history. Furthermore, Jay Beaman has shown in his thesis[115] that there has been a shift away from pacifism in the American Pentecostal churches to more a style of military support and chaplaincy. The major organisation for Pentecostal Christians who believe in pacifism is the PCPF, thePentecostal Charismatic Peace Fellowship.
TheUnited Pentecostal Church, the largest Apostolic/Oneness denomination, takes an official stand of conscientious objection: its Articles of Faith read, "We are constrained to declare against participating in combatant service in war, armed insurrection ... aiding or abetting in or the actual destruction of human life. We believe that we can be consistent in serving our Government in certain noncombatant capacities, but not in the bearing of arms."[116]
A Peace poppywreath, made of Peace poppies, with aCND symbol inside at a BritishRemembrance Day event
ThePeace Pledge Union is a pacifist organisation from which the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (APF) later emerged within the Anglican Church. The APF succeeded in gaining ratification of the pacifist position at two successiveLambeth Conferences, but many Anglicans would not regard themselves as pacifists. South African BishopDesmond Tutu is the most prominent Anglican pacifist.Rowan Williams led an almost united Anglican Church in Britain in opposition to the 2003Iraq War. In AustraliaPeter Carnley similarly led a front of bishops opposed to theGovernment of Australia's involvement in the invasion of Iraq.
TheCatholic Worker Movement is concerned with both social justice and pacifist issues, and voiced consistent opposition to theSpanish Civil War and World War II. Many of its early members were imprisoned for their opposition toconscription.[117] Within the Roman Catholic Church, thePax Christi organisation is the premier pacifist lobby group. It holds positions similar to APF, and the two organisations are known to work together on ecumenical projects. Within Roman Catholicism there has been a discernible move towards a more pacifist position through the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. PopesBenedict XV,John XXIII andJohn Paul II were all vocal in their opposition to specific wars. By taking the nameBenedict XVI, some suspected thatJoseph Ratzinger would continue the strong emphasis upon nonviolent conflict resolution of his predecessor. However, the Roman Catholic Church officially maintains the legitimacy of Just War, which is rejected by some pacifists.
In the twentieth century, there was a notable trend among prominent Roman Catholics towards pacifism. Individuals such asDorothy Day andHenri Nouwen stand out among them. The monk and mysticThomas Merton was noted for his commitment to pacifism during theVietnam War era. Murdered Salvadoran BishopÓscar Romero was notable for using non-violent resistance tactics and wrote meditative sermons focusing on the power of prayer and peace.School of the Americas Watch was founded by Maryknoll Fr. Roy Bourgeois in 1990 and uses strictly pacifist principles to protest the training of Latin American military officers by United States Army officers at the School of the Americas in the state of Georgia.
TheUnited Methodist Church explicitly supports conscientious objection by its members "as an ethically valid position" while simultaneously allowing for differences of opinion and belief for those who do not object to military service.[119]
Members of theRastafari Movement's MansionNyabinghi are specifically noted for having a large population of Pacifist members, though not all of them are.[120]
Nonviolence, orahimsa, is a central part of Hinduism and is one of the fundamentalYamas – self restraints needed to live a proper life. The concept of ahimsa grew gradually within Hinduism, one of the signs being the discouragement of ritual animal sacrifice. Many Hindus today have a vegetarian diet. The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment.[121][122]Arthashastra discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.[123][124]The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.[121][123] While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.[121][122]
Peace is an important aspect of Islam, and Muslims are encouraged to strive for peace and peaceful solutions to all problems. However, most Muslims are generally not pacifists, as the teachings in the Qur'an and Hadith allow for wars to be fought if they are justified.[133]
Khān Abdul Ghaffār Khān was aPashtunindependence activist againstBritish colonial rule. He was a political and spiritual leader known for hisnonviolent opposition, and a lifelong pacifist and devoutMuslim.[137] A close friend ofMahatma Gandhi, Bacha Khan was nicknamed the "Frontier Gandhi" inBritish India.[138] Bacha Khan founded theKhudai Khidmatgar ("Servants of God") movement in 1929, whose success triggered severe crackdowns by the colonial government against Khan and his supporters, and they experienced some of the strongest repression of the Indian independence movement.[139]
According to theAhmadiyya understanding of Islam, pacifism is a strong current, and jihad is one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution.Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, said that in contrary to the current views, Islamdoes not allow the use of sword in religion, except in the case of defensive wars, wars waged to punish a tyrant, or those meant to uphold freedom.[140]
Ahmadiyya claims its objective to be the peaceful propagation ofIslam with special emphasis on spreading the true message of Islam by the pen. Ahmadis point out that as per prophecy, who they believe was the promised messiah, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, rendered the concept of violent jihad unnecessary in modern times. They believe that the answer of hate should be given by love.[141] Many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as eitherkafirs orheretics, an animosity sometimes resulting in murder.[142][143][144]
Absolute Non-violence and compassion for all life is central toJainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. Killing any person or living creature seen or unseen, no matter what crime may have committed, is considered unimaginably terrible. It is a religion that requires monks, from all its sects and traditions, to belacto-vegetarianism. Most or all Jains are lacto-vegetarians. Some Indian regions, such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination are also lacto-vegetarian.[145]
AlthoughJudaism is not a pacifist religion, it does believe that peace is highly desirable. Most Jews will hope to limit or minimise conflict and violence but they accept that, given human nature and the situations which arise from time to time in the world, there will be occasions when violence and war may be justified.[146] The Jewish Peace Fellowship is a New-York basednonprofit,nondenominational organization set up to provide aJewish voice in thepeace movement. The organization was founded in 1941 in order to support Jewishconscientious objectors who sought exemption from combatant military service.[147] It is affiliated to theInternational Fellowship of Reconciliation.[148] The fringeNeturei Karta group of anti-Zionist, ultra-orthodox Jews, supposedly take a pacifist line, saying that "Jews are not allowed to dominate, kill, harm or demean another people and are not allowed to have anything to do with the Zionist enterprise, their political meddling and their wars."[149][150] TheHebrew Bible has many examples of Jews being told to go and war against enemy lands or within the Israelite community as well as instances where God, as destroyer and protector, goes to war for non-participant Jews.[151]
While many governments have tolerated pacifist views and even accommodated pacifists' refusal to fight in wars, others at times have outlawed pacifist and anti-war activity. In 1918, The United States Congress passed theSedition Act of 1918. During the periods between World Wars I and World War II, pacifist literature and public advocacy was banned in Italy underBenito Mussolini, Germany after the rise ofAdolf Hitler,[152]Spain underFrancisco Franco,[153] and theSoviet Union underJoseph Stalin.[154] In these nations, pacifism was denounced as cowardice; indeed, Mussolini referred to pacifist writings as the "propaganda of cowardice".[152]
Today, the United States requires that all young men register for selective service but does not allow them to be classified as conscientious objectors unless they are drafted in some future reinstatement of the draft, allowing them to be discharged or transferred to noncombatant status.[155] Some European governments likeSwitzerland, Greece, Norway and Germany offercivilian service. However, even during periods of peace, many pacifists still refuse to register for or report for military duty, risking criminal charges.
Anti-war and "pacifist" political parties seeking to win elections may moderate their demands, calling forde-escalation or majorarms reduction rather than the outrightdisarmament which is advocated by many pacifists.Green parties list "non-violence" and "decentralization" towards anarchist co-operatives or minimalist village government as two of their ten key values. However, in power, Greens often compromise. The German Greens in the cabinet of Social DemocratGerhard Schröder supported an intervention by German troops in Afghanistan in 2001 if that they hosted the peace conference in Berlin. However, during the 2002 election Greens forced Schröder to swear that no German troops would invade Iraq.
March of Peace, which took place in Moscow in March 2014
Some pacifists andmultilateralists are in favor of international criminal law as means to prevent and control international aggression. TheInternational Criminal Court has jurisdiction over war crimes, but the crime of aggression has yet to be clearly defined in international law.[need quotation to verify]TheItalian Constitution enforces a mild pacifist character on the Italian Republic, as Article 11 states that "Italy repudiates war as an instrument offending the liberty of the peoples and as a means for settling international disputes ..." Similarly, Articles 24, 25 and 26 of theGerman Constitution (1949), Alinea 15 of the French Constitution (1946), Article 20 of theDanish Constitution (1953),Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution (1947) and several other mostly European constitutions correspond to the United Nations Charter by rejecting the institution of war in favour ofcollective security and peaceful cooperation.[156]
However, some pacifists, such as theChristian anarchistLeo Tolstoy andautarchistRobert LeFevre, consider the state a form of warfare. In addition, for doctrinal reason that a manmade government is inferior to divine governance and law, many pacifist-identified religions/religious sects also refrain from political activity altogether, including theAnabaptists,Jehovah's Witnesses andMandaeans. This means that such groups refuse to participate in government office or serve under an oath to a government.
Anarcho-pacifism is a form ofanarchism which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent wasHenry David Thoreau who through his workCivil Disobedience influenced the advocacy of both Leo Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi fornonviolent resistance.[157] As a global movement, anarcho-pacifism emerged shortly beforeWorld War II in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns fornuclear disarmament.
Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists during the 19th century embracedpropaganda of the deed,Leo Tolstoy and other anarcho-pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change. He argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent since it is, by definition, opposition to coercion and force and since the state is inherently violent, meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic. His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Mahatma Gandhi, anIndian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist.Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement.[158] In France, anti-militarism appeared strongly in individualist anarchist circles asÉmile Armand founded "Ligue Antimilitariste" in 1902 withAlbert Libertad and George Mathias Paraf-Javal.
Many pacifists who would be conscientious objectors to military service are alsoopposed to paying taxes to fund the military. In the United States, theNational Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund works to pass a national law to allow conscientious objectors to redirect their tax money to be used only for non-military purposes.[159]
One common argument against pacifism is the possibility of using violence to prevent further acts of violence (and reduce the "net-sum" of violence). This argument hinges onconsequentialism: an otherwise morally objectionable action can be justified if it results in a positive outcome. For example, either violent rebellion, or foreign nations sending in troops to end a dictator's violent oppression may save millions of lives, even if many thousands died in the war. Those pacifists who base their beliefs ondeontological grounds would oppose such violent action. Others would oppose organized military responses but support individual and small group self-defense against specific attacks if initiated by the dictator's forces. Pacifists may argue that military action could be justified should it subsequently advance the general cause of peace.
Still more pacifists would argue that a nonviolent reaction may not save lives immediately but would in the long run. The acceptance of violence for any reason makes it easier to use in other situations. Learning and committing to pacifism helps to send a message that violence is, in fact, not the most effective way. It can also help people to think more creatively and find more effective ways to stop violence without more violence.
In light of the common criticism of pacifism as not offering a clear alternative policy, one approach to finding "more effective ways" has been the attempt to develop the idea of "defence bycivil resistance", also called "social defence". This idea, which is not necessarily dependent on acceptance of pacifist beliefs, is based on relying onnonviolent resistance against possible threats, whether external (such as invasion) or internal (such ascoup d'état).
Jewish armed resistance against the Nazis during World War II
There have been some works on this topic, including byAdam Roberts[160] andGene Sharp.[161] However, no country has adopted this approach as the sole basis of its defence.[162] (For further information and sources seesocial defence.)
Axis aggression that precipitatedWorld War II has been cited as an argument against pacifism.[163] If these forces had not been challenged and defeated militarily, the argument goes, many more people would have died under their oppressive rule.Adolf Hitler told the British Foreign SecretaryLord Halifax in 1937 that the British should "shoot Gandhi, and if this doesn't suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of the Congress, and if that doesn't suffice shoot 200, and so on, as you make it clear that you mean business."[164]
Adolf Hitler noted in hisSecond Book: "... Later, the attempt to adapt the living space to increased population turned into unmotivated wars of conquest, which in their very lack of motivation contained the germ of the subsequent reaction. Pacifism is the answer to it. Pacifism has existed in the world ever since there have been wars whose meaning no longer lay in the conquest of territory for a Folk's sustenance. Since then it has been war's eternal companion. It will again disappear as soon as war ceases to be an instrument of booty hungry or power hungry individuals or nations, and as soon as it again becomes the ultimate weapon with which a Folk fights for its daily bread."[165]
Hermann Göring described, during an interview at theNuremberg Trials, how denouncing and outlawing pacifism was an important part of the Nazis' seizure of power: "The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country."[166]
Some commentators on the most nonviolent forms of pacifism, includingJan Narveson, argue that such pacifism is a self-contradictory doctrine. Narveson claims that everyone has rights and corresponding responsibilities not to violate others' rights. Since pacifists give up their ability to protect themselves from violation of their right not to be harmed, then other people thus have no corresponding responsibility, thus creating a paradox of rights. Narveson said that "the prevention of infractions of that right is precisely what one has a right to when one has a right at all." Narveson then discusses how rational persuasion is a good but often inadequate method of discouraging an aggressor. He considers that everyone has the right to use any means necessary to prevent deprivation of their civil liberties, and force could be necessary.[167]Peter Gelderloos criticizes the idea that nonviolence is the only way to fight for a better world. According to Gelderloos, pacifism as an ideology serves the interests of the state and is hopelessly caught up psychologically with the control schema of patriarchy andwhite supremacy.[168]Anne Appelbaum has argued that advocating pacifism in response to theRusso-Ukrainian War overlooks the lessons of history, as surrendering territory and principles enables atrocities, and early military support for Ukraine might have deterred the invasion, revealing that misguided pacifism can sometimes lead to greater conflict.[169]
^The Abolition of War: the Peace Movement in Britain, 1914–1919 byKeith Robbins. University of Wales Press, 1976.ISBN978-0708306222 (p. 10).
^James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by Randy Kryn, a paper inDavid Garrow's 1989 bookWe Shall Overcome, Volume II, Carlson Publishing Company
^ab"Searching for the Enemy of Man", in Nhat Nanh, Ho Huu Tuong, Tam Ich, Bui Giang, Pham Cong Thien.Dialogue. Saigon: La Boi, 1965. pp. 11–20., archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website,King's Journey: 1964 – April 4, 1967Archived 27 October 2006 at theWayback Machine
^Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945. Edited by Brock and Socknat University of Toronto Press, 1999ISBN0802043712 (p. ix)
^Pacifism and the Just War: A Study in Applied Philosophy by Jenny Teichman. Basil Blackwell, 1986ISBN0631150560
^War and International Justice: a Kantian perspective by Brian Orend. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 2000.ISBN0889203377 pp. 145–146
^Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.),Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford University Press, 2009. See[1]. Includes chapters by specialists on the various movements.
^"Ethics – War: Pacifism".BBC. British Broadcasting Corporation.Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved9 August 2014.
^"Pacifism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved10 October 2022.
^ab"When the American Civil War broke out ... both the American Peace Society and many former nonresistants argued that the conflict was not properly war but rather police action on a grand scale" Brock, Peter,Freedom from War: Nonsectarian Pacifism, 1814–1914 University of Toronto Press, 1991ISBN0802058833, (p. 176)
^Ziegler, Valarie H.,The Advocates of Peace in Antebellum America. Mercer University Press, 2001ISBN0865547262 (p. 158).
^abIngram, Norman.The Politics of Dissent : Pacifism in France, 1919–1939. University of Edinburgh, 1988. (p. 219)
^Pacifism in the Twentieth Century, by Peter Brock andNigel Young. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999ISBN0815681259 (p. 296)
^Johnston, Alastair I (1998).Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History. Princeton University Press. pp. 66–67.
^abcCleave, Joanne; Geddes, Gordon D.; Griffiths, Jane (2004).GCSE Religious Studies for AQA Christianity: Christianity: Behaviour, Attitudes & Lifestyles. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publisher. p. 75.ISBN978-0435307141.
^Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States, byFrancis Harry Hinsley, Cambridge University Press, 1967,ISBN0521094488, (pp. 13–45).
^"Thinking About Peace in History" byCharles Chatfield, inThe Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective : Essays in Honour of Peter Brock, edited byHarvey L. Dyck. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1996,ISBN0802007775 (pp. 36–51).
^Schuyler, Robert Livingston (1922). "The Rise of Anti-Imperialism in England".Political Science Quarterly.37 (3):440–4471.doi:10.2307/2142146.JSTOR2142146.
^Eller, Cynthia (1990). "Oral History as Moral Discourse: Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War".The Oral History Review.18 (1):45–75.doi:10.1093/ohr/18.1.45.JSTOR3674738.
^Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963 by Scott H. Bennett. New York, Syracuse University Press, 2003,ISBN081563028X, p. 18.
^Kramer, Ann (2013).Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight. Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1783469376.[page needed]
^Randall, Ian M.; Wright, Nigel G. (2018).A Christian Peace Experiment: The Bruderhof Community in Britain, 1933–1942. Cascade Books.ISBN978-1532639982.
^Toye, R. (1 January 2001). "The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935–39".Twentieth Century British History.12 (3):303–326.doi:10.1093/tcbh/12.3.303.hdl:10036/26952.
^Rhiannon Vickers,Labour and the World, Manchester University Press, 2004,ISBN978-0719067457
^A.J.Davies,To Build A New Jerusalem: The British Labour Party from Keir Hardie to Tony Blair, Abacus, 1996
^Lynd, Staughton.Nonviolence in America: a documentary history, Bobbs-Merrill, 1966, (pps. 271–296).
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved6 December 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Conway, John S. (2003). "Review of Christian Pacifism confronts German Nationalism – The Ecumenical Movement and the Cause of Peace in Germany, 1914–1933; Der Weltbund für Freundschaftsarbeit der Kirchen, 1914–1948. Eine ökumenische Friedensorganisation".Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte.16 (2):491–497.JSTOR43751708.
^"America First Acts to End Organization".The New York Times. 12 December 1941. p. 22.
^Ian Patterson, "Pacifists and Conscientious Objectors", in Adam Piette and Mark Rawlinson,The Edinburgh Companion to Twentieth-Century British and American War Literature, Edinburgh University Press, 2012.ISBN0748638741 (p. 311).
^Quoted onAlbert EinsteinArchived 9 October 2007 at theWayback Machine at Peace Pledge Union, and but also discussed in detail in articles in Einstein, Albert (1954),Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House,ISBN0517003937
^Martin Ceadel,Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945 : The Defining of a Faith. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1980.ISBN0198218826 (pp. 298–299).
^Overy, R. (1 May 2013). "Pacifism and the Blitz, 1940–1941".Past & Present (219):201–236.doi:10.1093/pastj/gtt005.
^Lovin, Robin W. (July 1997). "Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works Volume 2: Act and Being: Transcendental Philosophy and Ontology in Systematic Theology; Minneapolis, Fortress, 1996. 237 pp. $30.00: Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works Volume 5: Life Together; Prayerbook of the Bible; Minneapolis, Fortress, 1996. 218 pp. $30.00".Theology Today.54 (2):266–268.doi:10.1177/004057369705400223.S2CID170907892.
^Reinhard R. Doerries,Hitler's Intelligence Chief: Walter Schellenberg, New York. Enigma Books, 2013ISBN1936274132 (p. 33)
^William Hetherington,Swimming Against the Tide:The Peace Pledge Union Story, 1934–2009. London; The Peace Pledge Union,ISBN978-0902680517 (p. 14)
^abKramer, Ann. Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War : Refusing to Fight. Pen and Sword, 2013.
^Kramer, Ann (2013).Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight. Barnsley: Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1844681181.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^"Beyond Vietnam"Archived 20 August 2006 at theWayback Machine, 1967-04-04, speech made by King at the Riverside Church, NYC, archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website
^Lewis, James R. (2001).The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books.ISBN978-1615927388.
^Manual: First Bible Holiness Church.Muncie: First Bible Holiness Church. 1956. p. 4.
^abcBeaman, Jay; Pipkin, Brian K. (2013).Pentecostal and Holiness Statements on War and Peace. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 73–74,98–99, 124.ISBN978-1610979085.
^Alexander, Estrelda Y. (2011).Black Fire: One Hundred Years of African American Pentecostalism. InterVarsity Press. p. 82.ISBN978-0830825868.
^abBeaman, J: Pentecostal Pacifism: The Origin, Development, and Rejection of Pacific Belief among the Pentecostals, Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies, Hillsboro, Kansas, 1989
^abKlaus K. Klostermaier (1996), in Harvey Leonard Dyck and Peter Brock (Ed), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective, seeChapter on Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism,ISBN978-0802007773, University of Toronto Press, pp. 230–234
^abPaul F. Robinson (2003), Just War in Comparative Perspective,ISBN0754635872, Ashgate Publishing, see pp. 114–125
^Coates, B. E. (2008). Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa. Comparative Strategy, 27(2), pp. 133–147
^Zunes, Stephen (1999:42),Nonviolent Social Movements: A Geographical Perspective, Blackwell Publishing{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Boulding, Elise. "Cultures of Peace: The Hidden Side of History", p. 57
^An American Witness to India's Partition by Phillips Talbot Year (2007) Sage PublicationsISBN978-0761936183
^Raza, Moonis; Ahmad, Aijazuddin (1990).An Atlas of Tribal India: With Computed Tables of District-level Data and Its Geographical Interpretation. Concept Publishing Company. p. 1.ISBN978-8170222866.
^Adam Roberts, ed.The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-violent Resistance to Aggression, Faber, London, 1967. (Also published asCivilian Resistance as a National Defense, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, USA, 1968; and, with a new Introduction on "Czechoslovakia and Civilian Defence", asCivilian Resistance as a National Defence, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, UK, and Baltimore, US, 1969.ISBN0140210806.)
^Gene Sharp,Social Power and Political Freedom, Porter Sargent, Boston, 1980, pp. 195–261.ISBN0875580939 (paperback); andCivilian-based Defence: A Post-military Weapons System, Princeton University Press, 1990.ISBN0691078092.
^Adam Roberts, in Roberts and Garton Ash (ed.),Civil Resistance and Power Politics, Introduction, p. 12.
Agnew, Elizabeth N. "A will to peace: Jane Addams, World War I, and 'pacifism in practice'."Peace & Change 42.1 (2017): 5–31.
Bamba, Nabuya, ed.Pacifism in Japan: the Christian and Socialist tradition (1978)online
Brock, Peter and Young, Nigel.Pacifism in the Twentieth Century (Syracuse UP, 1999).online
Brock, Peter.Pacifism in Europe to 1914 (1972)online
Brock, Peter.Varieties of Pacifism: A Survey from Antiquity to the Outset of the Twentieth Century (Syracuse UP, 1999).
Brock, Peter.Pacifism in the United States: from the colonial era to the First World War (1968)online
Carroll, Berenice A.Feminism and pacifism: Historical and theoretical connections (Routledge, 2019).
Castelli, Alberto.The Peace Discourse in Europe (1900–1945) (Routledge, 2019).
Ceadel, Martin.Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945: the defining of a faith (1980)online
Chandra, Sudhir (dir.),Violence and Non-violence across Times. History, Religion and Culture, Routledge, London and New York, 2018 [articles by various authors]ISBN978-0367479237
Chatfield, Charles.For peace and justice: pacifism in America, 1914–1941 (University of Tennessee Press, 1971).
Chatfield, Charles.The American peace movement: ideals and activism (1992)online free to borrow
Cortright, David.Peace :A History of Movements and Ideas (Cambridge UP, 2008).
Day, ALan J. ed.Peace movements of the world (1986)online
Fiala, Andrew, ed.The Routledge Handbook of Pacifism and Nonviolence (Routledge, 2018).excerpt
Gustafsson, Karl, Linus Hagström, and Ulv Hanssen. "Japan's pacifism is dead."Survival 60.6 (2018): 137–158.online[dead link]
Hassell, Tristin S. (2011)."Pacifism". In Deen K. Chatterjee (ed.).Encyclopedia of Global Justice. Springer.ISBN978-1402091599.
Henderson, Gavin B. "The Pacifists of the Fifties"Journal of Modern History 9#3, (1937), pp. 314–341online 1850s in Britain
Laqueur, Walter, and Robert Hunter, eds.European peace movements and the future of the Western Alliance (1985)online
Lewy, Guenter.Peace & revolution: the moral crisis of American pacifism (1998)online
Lunardini, Christine A.The ABC-CLIO companion to the American peace movement in the twentieth century (1994)online free to borrow
Mayer, Peter, ed. (1967),Mayer, Peter.The Pacifist Conscience, Henry Regnery Co.,OL21324283M
Morgan, W. John, "Pacifism or Bourgeois Pacifism? Huxley, Orwell, and Caudwell". In Morgan, W. John and Guilherme, Alexandre (Eds.),Peace and War: Historical, Philosophical, and Anthropological Perspectives,(Palgrave Macmillan,2020) 71–96.ISBN978-3030486709.
Patterson, David S.The Search for Negotiated Peace: Women's Activism and Citizen Diplomacy in World War I (Routledge. 2008)
Phelps, Christina,The Anglo-American peace movement in the mid-nineteenth century (1930)
Rock, Stephen R. "From Just War to Nuclear Pacifism: The Evolution of US Christian Thinking about War in the Nuclear Age, 1946–1989."Social Sciences 7.6 (2018): 82+online
Socknat, Thomas P.Witness against war: pacifism in Canada, 1900–1945 (1987)online
"Pacifism",Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, USA: Stanford University, 2021
"Pacifism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived fromthe original on 27 December 2014. Retrieved24 November 2014 – via University of Tennessee.
.svg)
.jpg)
