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Pākehā (orPakeha;/ˈpɑːkɛhɑː,-kiːhɑː,-kiːə/;[1]Māori pronunciation:[ˈpaːkɛhaː]) is aMāori-language word used in English, particularly inNew Zealand. It generally means a non-PolynesianNew Zealander or more specifically aEuropean New Zealander.[2][3] It is not a legal term and has no definition under New Zealand law.Papa'a has a similar meaning inCook Islands Māori.[4]
The etymology of the Māori wordPākehā is uncertain. The most likely sources are the Māori wordspākehakeha orpakepakehā, which refer to an oral tale of a "mythical, human like being, with fair skin and hair who possessed canoes made of reeds which changed magically into sailing vessels".[5] When Europeans first arrived they rowed to shore in longboats, facing backwards:[6]
We stayed at Whitianga and their ship arrived. Our elders saw their ship and said that it was a god and that the crew were goblins. The ship anchored and a boat started to row to shore. Our elders then said, "Indeed they are goblins as they have eyes in the backs of their heads. That is why they row with their backs to the shore."[7]
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In traditional Māori canoes orwaka, paddlers face the direction of travel. This is supposed to have led to the belief by some, that the sailors werepatupaiarehe (supernatural beings).[8][9]
Pakepakehā is another word for patupaiarehe. It may have given rise to the term Pākehā (a New Zealander of European descent). To Māori, Europeans resembled the pakepakehā or patupaiarehe, with their fair skin and light-coloured hair.[10]
There have been several dubious interpretations given to the wordPākehā. One claims that it derives frompoaka, the Māori word forpig, andkeha, one of the Māori words forflea, and therefore expresses derogatory implications.[11] There is no etymological support for this notion—like all Polynesian languages, Māori is generally very conservative in terms of vowels; it would be extremely unusual forpā- to derive frompoaka. The wordpoaka itself may come from the proto-Polynesian rootpuaka, known in every Polynesian language (puaka inTongan,Uvean,Futunian,Rapa,Marquisian,Niuean,Rarotongan,Tokelauan, andTuvaluan; it evolved to the later formpuaʻa inSamoan,Tahitian, someRapa dialects, andHawaiian); or it might be borrowed or mixed with the English 'porker'. It is hard to say, since Polynesian peoples populated their islands bringing pigs with them fromEast Asia, but did not bring pigs to New Zealand. The more common Māori word for flea ispuruhi. It is also sometimes claimed thatPākehā means 'white pig' or 'unwelcome white stranger'. However, no part of the word signifies 'pig', 'white', 'unwelcome', or 'stranger'.[12]
The earliest known written record of the term is in a letter from William Hall on 15 June 1814, after he andThomas Kendall had arrived atRangihoua in the Bay of Islands on 10 June. When Hall told Māori there that he would build them large houses and fine canoes, they called him a "'Nuee nuee rungateeda pakehaa' [nui nui rangatira Pākehā] – a very great Gentleman white man".[13][14] John Savage had visited the Bay of Islands in 1805 and Māori told him of a white man living there,[15] but when Savage compiled a list of Māori words he heard during his visit, it did not includePākehā. HistorianOrmond Wilson thinks that if it had been in use at that time, Savage would have heard it.[13] The earliest use of the term in a published work is on page 22 of Kendall's 1815A Korao no New Zealand; or, the New Zealander's First Book, the first book written in Māori, where it is speltPakkahah.[14][16]
TheOxford Dictionary of English (2011) defines 'Pakeha' as 'a white New Zealander'.[17]The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms (2010) defines the noun Pākehā as 'a light-skinned non-Polynesian New Zealander, especially one of British birth or ancestry as distinct from a Māori; a European or white person'; and the adjective as 'of or relating to Pākehā; non-Māori; European, white'.[18]
Māori in theBay of Islands and surrounding districts had no doubts about the meaning of the word in the 19th century. In 1831, thirteenrangatira from theFar North met atKerikeri to compose a letter toKing William IV, seeking protection from the French,"the tribe of Marion". Written in Māori, the letter used the wordPākehā to mean 'British European', and the wordstau iwi to mean 'strangers (non-British)'—as shown in the translation that year of the letter from Māori to English by the missionaryWilliam Yate.[19] To this day, the Māori term for the English language isreo Pākehā. Māori also used other terms such astupua (supernatural, or object of fear, strange being),[20]kehua (ghosts),[21] andmaitai (metal or referring to persons foreign)[22] to refer to some of the earliest visitors.[23]
However,The Concise Māori Dictionary (Kāretu, 1990) defines the wordPākehā as 'foreign, foreigner (usually applied to white person)', while theEnglish–Māori, Māori–English Dictionary (Biggs, 1990) defines it as 'white (person)'. Sometimes the term applies more widely to include all non-Māori.[24] No Māori dictionary citesPākehā as derogatory. Some earlyEuropean settlers who lived among Māori and adopted aspects ofMāoritanga became known as 'Pākehā Māori'.[25]
In Māori, plural noun-phrases of the term includengā Pākehā (thedefinite article) andhe Pākehā (the indefinite article). When the word was first adopted into English, the usual plural was 'Pakehas'. However, speakers ofNew Zealand English are increasingly removing the terminal 's' and treating the term as a plural noun.[26][27] There is also evidence Māori coined the term in the plural as well as in the singular on first encounter with Europeans:
When the Māori heard the soft and loud sounds of the language of Captain Cook and his sailors the Māori called them 'Pakepakehā', which was shortened to 'Pākehā'. The Māori created this name, which is still used.I tētahi whawhaitanga i muri mai, ka riro tētahi o ngā pū repo a te Pākehā i te Māori, nō muri mai ka tuomakia mai e tētahi Pākehā nō Amerika, he kaupoai (TP 7/1900:8). / In a later fight, one of the cannons of the Pākehā(plural) was taken by the Māori, and later on, a Pākehā(singular) from America, a cowboy, came hurrying up.[28]
A survey of 6,507 New Zealanders in 2009 showed no support for the claim that it is associated with a negative evaluation;[29] however, some reject it on the ground that they claim it is offensive,[30] or they object to being named in a language other than their own.[30] In 2013, theNew Zealand Attitudes and Values Study carried out by theUniversity of Auckland found no evidence that the word was widely considered to bederogatory; however, only 12 per cent of New Zealanders of European descent actively chose to be identified by the term, with the remainder preferring 'New Zealander' (53 per cent), 'New Zealand European' (25 per cent) or 'Kiwi' (17 per cent).[31][32]
European New Zealanders vary in their attitudes toward the word when it is applied to themselves.[33][31] Some embrace it while others object to the word,[30] sometimes strongly, saying it is offensive or derogatory, carrying implications of being an outsider, although this is often based on false information about the meaning of the term.[34] Some believe being labelled Pākehā compromises their status and their birthright links to New Zealand.[35] In the 1986 census, over 36,000 respondents ignored the ethnicities offered, includingPākehā, writing-in their ethnicity as 'New Zealander', or ignoring the question completely.[33] A joint response code of 'NZ European or Pakeha' was tried in the 1996 census, but was replaced by "New Zealand European" in later censuses because it drew whatStatistics New Zealand described as a "significant adverse reaction from some respondents".[36] SociologistPaul Spoonley criticised the new version, saying that many Pākehā would not identify as European.[37]
The termPākehā is also sometimes used among New Zealanders of European ancestry in distinction to the Māori termtauiwi (foreigner), as an act of emphasising their claims of belonging to the space of New Zealand in contrast to more recent arrivals.[38] Those who prefer to emphasise nationality rather than ethnicity in relating to others living in New Zealand may refer to all New Zealand citizens only as 'New Zealanders' or by the colloquial term 'Kiwis'.
HistorianJudith Binney called herself a Pākehā and said, "I think it is the most simple and practical term. It is a name given to us by Māori. It has no pejorative associations like people think it does—it's a descriptive term. I think it's nice to have a name the people who live here gave you, because that's what I am."[39]New Zealand writer and historianMichael King wrote in 1985: "To say something is Pakeha in character is not to diminish its New Zealand-ness, as some people imply. It is to emphasise it."[40]
