Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth's surface. TheKármán line, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) abovesea level,[8][9] is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upperstratosphere and themesosphere are sometimes referred to as "near space". The framework for internationalspace law was established by theOuter Space Treaty, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims ofnational sovereignty and permits all states to freelyexplore outer space. Despite the drafting ofUN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space,anti-satellite weapons have been tested inEarth orbit.
The concept that the space between the Earth and the Moon must be a vacuum was first proposed in the 17th century after scientists discovered thatair pressure decreased with altitude. The immense scale of outer space was grasped in the 20th century when the distance to theAndromeda Galaxy was first measured. Humans began the physical exploration of space later in the same century with the advent of high-altitudeballoon flights. This was followed by crewedrocket flights and, then, crewed Earth orbit, first achieved byYuri Gagarin of theSoviet Union in 1961. The economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high, limiting humanspaceflight tolow Earth orbit and theMoon. On the other hand,uncrewed spacecraft have reached all of the knownplanets in theSolar System. Outer space represents a challenging environment forhuman exploration because of the hazards ofvacuum andradiation.Microgravity has a negative effect on humanphysiology that causes bothmuscle atrophy andbone loss.
Terminology
The use of the short versionspace, as meaning "the region beyond Earth's sky", predates the use of full term "outer space", with the earliest recorded use of this meaning in an epic poem byJohn Milton calledParadise Lost, published in 1667.[10][11]
The termoutward space existed in a poem from 1842 by the English poet LadyEmmeline Stuart-Wortley called "The Maiden of Moscow",[12] but in astronomy the termouter space found its application for the first time in 1845 byAlexander von Humboldt.[13] The term was eventually popularized through the writings ofH. G. Wells after 1901.[14]Theodore von Kármán used the term offree space to name the space of altitudes above Earth where spacecrafts reach conditions sufficiently free from atmospheric drag, differentiating it fromairspace, identifying a legal space above territories free from thesovereign jurisdiction of countries.[15]
"Spaceborne" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a spacecraft;[16][17] similarly, "space-based" means based in outer space or on a planet or moon.[18]
Timeline of theexpansion of the universe, where visible space is represented by the circular sections. At left, a dramatic expansion occurs in theinflationary epoch, and at the center, the expansionaccelerates. Neither time nor size are to scale.
The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent.[19] According to the Big Bang theory, the very early universe was an extremely hot and dense state about13.8 billion years ago[20] which rapidlyexpanded. About 380,000 years later the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-calledrecombination epoch. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space.[21] Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deepvacuum that forms what is now called outer space.[22] As light has a finite velocity, this theory constrains the size of the directly observable universe.[21]
Estimates put the averageenergy density of the present day universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters.[25] The density of the universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, andblack holes—to conditions in vastvoids that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter.[26] Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the universe, dark energy's influence is 5orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.[27]
A wide field view of outer space as seen from Earth's surface at night. Theinterplanetary dust cloud is visible as the horizontal band ofzodiacal light, including thefalse dawn[28] (edges) andgegenschein (center), which is visually crossed by theMilky Way
Outer space is the closest known approximation to aperfect vacuum. It has effectively nofriction, allowing stars,planets, andmoons to move freely along theirorbits. The deep vacuum ofintergalactic space is not devoid ofmatter, as it contains a fewhydrogen atoms per cubic meter.[29] By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter.[30][31] The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: themean free path of aphoton in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years.[32] In spite of this,extinction, which is theabsorption andscattering of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalacticastronomy.[33]
Stars, planets, and moons retain theiratmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space.[34] The Earth's atmosphericpressure drops to about0.032Pa at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude,[35] compared to 100,000 Pa for theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition ofstandard pressure. Above this altitude,isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared toradiation pressure from theSun and thedynamic pressure of thesolar wind. Thethermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due tospace weather.[36]
The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of thekinetic activity of the gas,[37] as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not inthermodynamic equilibrium.[38][39] All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as thecosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number ofneutrinos called thecosmic neutrino background.[40]) The currentblack body temperature of the background radiation is about 2.7 K (−455 °F).[41] The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in theBoomerang Nebula is 1 K (−458 °F),[42] while thesolar corona reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F).[43]
Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around many classes of celestial objects. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scaledynamos, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μG. TheDavis–Greenstein effect causes elongateddust grains to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak opticalpolarization. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields that exist in several nearby galaxies.Magneto-hydrodynamic processes inactiveelliptical galaxies produce their characteristicjets andradio lobes. Non-thermalradio sources have been detected even among the most distanthigh-z sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.[44]
Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energeticsubatomic particles known ascosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 106eV up to an extreme 1020 eV ofultra-high-energy cosmic rays.[45] The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux ofelectrons is only about 1% of that of protons.[46] Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose ahealth threat to space travelers.[47]
Scents retained from low Earth orbit, when returning fromextravehicular activity, have a burned, metallic odor, similar to the scent ofarc welding fumes. This results fromoxygen in low Earth orbit, which clings to suits and equipment.[48][49][50] Other regions of space could have very different odors, like that of different alcohols inmolecular clouds.[51]
Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurizedspace suit while outside their spacecraft.
Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESABIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007.[52] Seeds ofArabidopsis thaliana andNicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years.[53] A strain ofBacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low Earth orbit or a simulated Martian environment.[54] Thelithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentiallymicroorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.[55]
The lack of pressure in space is the most immediate dangerous characteristic of space to humans. Pressure decreases above Earth, reaching a level at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi) that matches thevapor pressure of water at thetemperature of the human body. This pressure level is called theArmstrong line, named after American physicianHarry G. Armstrong.[56] At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule.[57]
Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very lowpressure, such as during a rapid decompression, can causepulmonary barotrauma—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest.[58] Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture.[59] Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads tohypoxia.[60]
As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize thepartial pressure gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.[61] Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kilopascals (1 psi), and this condition is calledebullism.[62] The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.[63][64]
Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in apressure suit. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kilopascals (0.3 psi).[65] Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.[66] Most space suits use around 30–39 kilopascals (4–6 psi) of pure oxygen, about the same as the partial pressure of oxygen at the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still causedecompression sickness andgas embolisms if not managed.[67]
Humans evolved for life in Earthgravity, and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experiencespace motion sickness. This can cause nausea and vomiting,vertigo, headaches,lethargy, and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results inmuscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, orspaceflight osteopenia. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.[68] Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of thecardiovascular system, decreased production ofred blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of theimmune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.[69]
During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose anacute health hazard. Exposure to high-energy, ionizingcosmic rays can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to thewhite blood cell count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes,nervous system, lungs and thegastrointestinal tract.[70] On a round-tripMars mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei.[71] The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.[72]
Illustration of Earth's atmosphere gradual transition into outer space
The transition between Earth's atmosphere and outer space lacks a well-defined physical boundary, with the air pressure steadily decreasing with altitude until it mixes with thesolar wind. Various definitions for a practical boundary have been proposed, ranging from 30 km (19 mi) out to 1,600,000 km (990,000 mi).[15] In 2009, measurements of the direction and speed of ions in the atmosphere were made from asounding rocket. The altitude of 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth was the midpoint for charged particles transitioning from the gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more extreme flows of outer space. The latter can reach velocities well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s).[73][74]
High-altitudeaircraft, such ashigh-altitude balloons have reached altitudes above Earth of up to 50 km.[75] Up until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as astronauts.[76]Astronaut wings are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety".[77]
The region between airspace and outer space is termed "near space". There is no legal definition for this extent, but typically this is the altitude range from 20 to 100 km (12 to 62 mi).[78] For safety reasons,commercial aircraft are typically limited to altitudes of 12 km (7.5 mi), and air navigation services only extend to 18 to 20 km (11 to 12 mi).[78] The upper limit of the range is theKármán line, whereastrodynamics must take over fromaerodynamics in order to achieve flight.[79] This range includes thestratosphere,mesosphere and lowerthermosphere layers of the Earth's atmosphere.[80]
Larger ranges fornear space are used by some authors, such as 18 to 160 km (11 to 99 mi).[81] These extend to the altitudes whereorbital flight invery low Earth orbits becomes practical.[81] Spacecraft have entered into a highly ellipticalorbit with a perigee as low as 80 to 90 km (50 to 56 mi), surviving for multiple orbits.[82] At an altitude of 120 km (75 mi),[82] descending spacecraft beginatmospheric entry asatmospheric drag becomes noticeable. Forspaceplanes such asNASA'sSpace Shuttle, this begins the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering withaerodynamic control surfaces.[83]
The Kármán line, established by theFédération Aéronautique Internationale, and used internationally by theUnited Nations,[15] is set at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This line is named afterTheodore von Kármán, who argued for an altitude where a vehicle would have to travel faster thanorbital velocity to derive sufficientaerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself,[8][9] which he calculated to be at an altitude of about 83.8 km (52.1 mi).[75] This distinguishes altitudes below as the region ofaerodynamics andairspace, and above as the space ofastronautics andfree space.[15]
There is no internationally recognized legal altitude limit on national airspace, although the Kármán line is the most frequently used for this purpose. Objections have been made to setting this limit too high, as it could inhibit space activities due to concerns about airspace violations.[82] It has been argued for setting no specified singular altitude in international law, instead applying different limits depending on the case, in particular based on the craft and its purpose. Increased commercial and military sub-orbital spaceflight has raised the issue of where to apply laws of airspace and outer space.[81][79] Spacecraft have flown over foreign countries as low as 30 km (19 mi), as in the example of the Space Shuttle.[75]
TheOuter Space Treaty provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition ofouter space, the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty, calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as acommon heritage of mankind has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations.[84] It prohibits the deployment ofnuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by theUnited Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK). As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.[85][86]
Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.[87] Four additionalspace law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN'sCommittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, andanti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the USA, USSR, China,[88] and in 2019, India.[89] The 1979Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.[90]
In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, The Republic of the Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia: with their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or theBogotá Declaration, they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.[91] These claims are not internationally accepted.[92]
An increasing issue of international space law and regulation has been the dangers of the growing number ofspace debris.[93]
Newton's cannonball, an illustration of how objects can "fall" in a curve around the planet
When a rocket is launched to achieve orbit, its thrust must both counter gravity and accelerate it toorbital speed. After the rocket terminates its thrust, it follows an arc-liketrajectory back toward the ground under the influence of the Earth'sgravitational force. In aclosed orbit, this arc will turn into anelliptical loop around the planet. That is, a spacecraft successfully enters Earth orbit when itsacceleration due to gravity pulls the craft down just enough to prevent its momentum from carrying it off into outer space.[94]
For alow Earth orbit, orbital speed is about 7.8 km/s (17,400 mph);[95] by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2.2 km/s (4,900 mph) in 1967 by theNorth American X-15.[96] At the upper limit of orbital speed at 11.2 km/s (25,100 mph) is thevelocity required to pull free from Earth altogether and enter into a basicheliocentric orbit.[97] The energy required to reach Earth orbital speed at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 MJ/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude.[98]
Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) has been defined as orbits that have a mean altitude below 450 km (280 mi), which can be better suited for Earth observation with small satellites.[99] Low Earth orbits in general range in altitude from 180 to 2,000 km (110 to 1,240 mi) and are used for scientific satellites.Medium Earth orbits extends from 2,000 to 35,780 km (1,240 to 22,230 mi), which are favorable orbits for navigation and specialized satellites. Above 35,780 km (22,230 mi) are thehigh Earth orbits used for weather and some communication satellites.[100]
Spacecraft in orbit with aperigee below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) (low Earth orbit) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere,[101] which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere, which is significantly effected byspace weather.[102] At altitudes above 800 km (500 mi), orbital lifetime is measured in centuries.[103] Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere.[104]
Radiation in orbit around Earth is concentrated inVan Allen radiation belts, which trapsolar and galactic radiation. Radiation is a threat to astronauts and space systems. It is difficult to shield against and space weather makes the radiation environment variable. The radiation belts are equatorialtoroidal regions, which are bent towards Earth's poles, with theSouth Atlantic Anomaly being the region where charged particles approach Earth closest.[105][106] The innermost radiaion belt, the inner Van Allen belt, has its intensity peak at altitudes above the equator of half an Earth radius,[107] centered at about 3000 km,[108] increasing from the upper edge of low Earth orbit which it overlaps.[109][110][111]
The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere is termed theexosphere. It extends outward from thethermopause, which lies at an altitude that varies from 250 to 500 kilometres (160 to 310 mi), depending on the incidence of solar radiation. Beyond this altitude, collisions between molecules are negligible and the atmosphere joins with interplanetary space.[112] The region in proximity to the Earth is home to a multitude of Earth–orbiting satellites and has been subject to extensive studies. For identification purposes, this volume is divided into overlapping regions of space.[113][114][115][116]
Near-Earth space is the region of space extending from low Earth orbits out togeostationary orbits.[113] This region includes the major orbits forartificial satellites and is the site of most of humanity's space activity. The region has seen high levels of space debris, sometimes dubbedspace pollution, threatening nearby space activity.[113] Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.[117] Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density inside low-Earth orbital space, the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line, is still sufficient to produce significantdrag on satellites.[104]
A computer-generated map of objects orbiting Earth, as of 2005. About 95% are debris, not working artificial satellites[118]
Geospace is a region of space that includes Earth'supper atmosphere andmagnetosphere.[114] The Van Allen radiation belts lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is themagnetopause, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is theionosphere.[119][120]
The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked withheliophysics—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.[121] The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form amagnetotail that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.[122][123] For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.[124]
Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by theEarth's magnetic field. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere.Geomagnetic storms can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication andGPS location and timing.[125] Magnetic storms can be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They createaurorae seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding thegeomagnetic poles.[126]
Earth and the Moon as seen from cislunar space on the 2022Artemis 1 mission
Deep space is defined by the United States government as all of outer space which lies further from Earth than a typical low-Earth-orbit, thus assigning the Moon to deep-space.[132] Other definitions vary the starting point of deep-space from, "That which lies beyond the orbit of the moon," to "That which lies beyond the farthest reaches of the Solar System itself."[133][134][135] TheInternational Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication, including with satellites, defines deep-space as, "distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 2 million km (1.2 million mi),"[136] which is about five times theMoon's orbital distance, but which distance is also far less than the distance between Earth and any adjacent planet.[137]
Near-Earth space showing the low-Earth (blue), medium Earth (green), and high Earth (red) orbits. The last extends beyond the radius of geosynchronous orbits
The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail ofcomet Hale–Bopp are being shaped by pressure fromsolar radiation and the solar wind, respectively.
Interplanetary space within theSolar System is the space dominated by the gravitation of the Sun, outside the gravitational spheres of influence of the planets.[138] Interplanetary space extends well beyond the orbit of the outermost planetNeptune, all the way out to where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the Sun and its solar wind producing theheliopause at 110 to 160 AU.[139] The heliopause deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, and its distance and strength varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind.[140][141] The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun which creates a very tenuous atmosphere (theheliosphere) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10protons/cm3 and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph).[142]
The region of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about oneastronomical unit at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, but is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which includeionizedatomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is gas, plasma and dust,[143] smallmeteors, and several dozen types oforganic molecules discovered to date bymicrowave spectroscopy.[144] Collectively, this matter is termed theinterplanetary medium.[139] A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called thezodiacal light.[145]
Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun.[142] There are magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn,Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.[146]
Interstellar space
"Interstellar space" redirects here. For the album, seeInterstellar Space.
Interstellar space is the physical space outside of the bubbles of plasma known asastrospheres, formed bystellar winds originating from individual stars, or formed by solar wind emanating from the Sun.[147] It is the space between the stars orstellar systems within a nebula or galaxy.[148] Interstellar space contains aninterstellar medium of sparse matter and radiation. The boundary between an astrosphere and interstellar space is known as anastropause. For the Sun, the astrosphere and astropause are called the heliosphere and heliopause, respectively.[149]
Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed throughstellar nucleosynthesis. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of aplanetary nebula.[150] The cataclysmic explosion of asupernova propagatesshock waves of stellar ejecta outward, distributing it throughout the interstellar medium, including the heavy elements previously formed within the star's core.[151] The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 106 particles per m3,[152] but coldmolecular clouds can hold 108–1012 per m3.[38][150]
Anumber of molecules exist in interstellar space, which can form dust particles as tiny as 0.1 μm.[153] The tally of molecules discovered throughradio astronomy is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in thetrihydrogen cation. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundantcarbon monoxide to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.[154]
The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 pc of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as theLocal Bubble, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in theOrion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in theconstellations ofOphiuchus andTaurus. The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more. This volume contains about 104–105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances theastrospheres that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.[155]
When stars are moving at sufficiently highpeculiar velocities, their astrospheres can generatebow shocks as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data fromInterstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) and NASA'sVoyager probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that asubsonic bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium.[156][157] A bow shock is a third boundary characteristic of an astrosphere, lying outside thetermination shock and the astropause.[157]
Large-scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber-like structures represent the matter, and the empty regions in between represent thecosmic voids of the intergalactic medium
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies show that the universe has a foam-like structure, withgroups and clusters of galaxies lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder formscosmic voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of 7–30 megaparsecs.[158]
Surrounding and stretching between galaxies is theintergalactic medium (IGM). Thisrarefied plasma[159] is organized in agalactic filamentary structure.[160] The diffuse photoionized gas contains filaments of higher density, about one atom per cubic meter,[161] which is 5–200 times the average density of the universe.[162] The IGM is inferred to be mostly primordial in composition, with 76% hydrogen by mass, and enriched with higher mass elements from high-velocity galactic outflows.[163]
As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K.[4] At these temperatures, it is called thewarm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 105 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics. Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.[162][164][165] When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so-calledintracluster medium (ICM).[166]
In 350 BCE, Greek philosopherAristotle suggested thatnature abhors a vacuum, a principle that became known as thehorror vacui. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCEontological argument by the Greek philosopherParmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space.[167] Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty.[168] As late as the 17th century, the French philosopherRené Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled.[169]
Inancient China, the 2nd-century astronomerZhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the empty space, moving or standing still".[170]
The Italian scientistGalileo Galilei knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupilEvangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercurybarometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe. Torricelli suggested that since air has weight, thenair pressure should decrease with altitude.[171] The French mathematicianBlaise Pascal proposed an experiment to test this hypothesis.[172] In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on thePuy de Dôme mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.[173]
The originalMagdeburg hemispheres (left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)
In 1650, German scientistOtto von Guericke constructed the firstvacuum pump: a device that would further refute the principle ofhorror vacui. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.[174]
In the 15th century, German theologianNicolaus Cusanus speculated that the universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained.[175] These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopherGiordano Bruno in the 16th century. He extended the Copernicanheliocentric cosmology to the concept of an infinite universe filled with a substance he calledaether, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies.[176] English philosopherWilliam Gilbert arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void.[177] This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.[178]
The concept of a universe filled with aluminiferous aether retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate.[179] In 1887, theMichelson–Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in thespeed of light depending on the direction of the planet's motion. Thenull result indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced byAlbert Einstein's theory ofspecial relativity, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion orframe of reference.[180][181]
The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite universe was the EnglishmanThomas Digges in 1576.[182] But the scale of the universe remained unknown until thefirst successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomerFriedrich Bessel. He showed that the star system61 Cygni had aparallax of just 0.31 arcseconds (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10light years.[183] In 1917,Heber Curtis noted thatnovae in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away.[184] The distance to theAndromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomerEdwin Hubble by measuring the brightness ofcepheid variables in that galaxy, a new technique discovered byHenrietta Leavitt.[185] This established that the Andromeda Galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way.[186] With this Hubble formulated theHubble constant, which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years. This became increasingly precise with better measurements, until 2006 when data of theHubble Space Telescope allowed a very accurate calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe.[187]
The modern concept of outer space is based on the"Big Bang" cosmology, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicistGeorges Lemaître.[188] This theory holds that the universe originated from a state of extreme energy density that has since undergonecontinuous expansion.[189]
The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicistCharles É. Guillaume in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicistArthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicistErich Regener used the total measured energy ofcosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933.[190] American physicistsRalph Alpher andRobert Herman predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-newBig Bang theory.[190]
For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the AmericanExplorer II crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi).[192] This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the GermanA-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the uncrewed satelliteSputnik 1 was launched by a RussianR-7 rocket, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi).[193] This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, whenYuri Gagarin was sent into orbit onVostok 1. The first humans to escape low Earth orbit wereFrank Borman,Jim Lovell andWilliam Anders in 1968 on board the AmericanApollo 8, which achieved lunar orbit[194] and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth.[195]
The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the SovietLuna 1, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959.[196] In 1961,Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by ofVenus, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus byMariner 2.[197] The first fly-by of Mars was byMariner 4 in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and manyminor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth.[198] In August 2012,Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enterinterstellar space.[199]
TheInternational Space Station is an orbiting laboratory for space applications and habitability. Visible in the background is yellow-greenairglow of Earth'sionosphere and the interstellar field of the Milky Way.
Outer space has become an important element of global society. It provides multiple applications that are beneficial to the economy and scientific research.
The placing of artificial satellites in Earth orbit has produced numerous benefits and has become the dominating sector of thespace economy. They allow relay oflong-range communications like television, provide a means ofprecise navigation, and permit direct monitoring ofweather conditions andremote sensing of the Earth. The latter role serves a variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, andsurveillance of military activities.[200] They facilitate the discovery and monitoring ofclimate change influences.[201] Satellites make use of the significantly reduced drag in space to stay in stable orbits, allowing them to efficiently span the whole globe, compared to for examplestratospheric balloons orhigh-altitude platform stations, which have other benefits.[202]
The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of theelectromagnetic spectrum. This is evidenced by the pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed.[203] Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. Theinterplanetary zodiacal dust emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving aninfrared telescope out past the dust increases its effectiveness.[204] Likewise, a site like theDaedalus crater on thefar side of the Moon could shield aradio telescope from theradio frequency interference that hampers Earth-based observations.[205]
The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces.[207] Likeasteroid mining,space manufacturing would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return.[208] An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $9,000–$31,000 per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then).[209] The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as theFalcon 9 have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fullyreusable launch systems,non-rocket spacelaunch,momentum exchange tethers, andspace elevators.[210]
Interstellar travel for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, theDaedalus Project study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by thefusion ofdeuterium andhelium-3, would require 36 years to reach the "nearby"Alpha Centauri system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems includelight sails,ramjets, andbeam-powered propulsion. More advanced propulsion systems could useantimatter as a fuel, potentially reachingrelativistic velocities.[211]
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