TheOuter Hebrides (/ˈhɛbrɪdiːz/HEB-rid-eez) orWestern Isles (Scottish Gaelic:na h-Eileanan Siar[nəˈhelanənˈʃiəɾ]ⓘ,na h-Eileanan an Iar[nəˈhelanənəɲˈiəɾ]ⓘ orna h-Innse Gall, 'Islands of the Strangers'), sometimes known as theLong Isle orLong Island (Scottish Gaelic:an t-Eilean Fada), is anisland chain off the west coast of mainlandScotland. It is the longest archipelago in the British Isles.[Note 1] The islands form part of the archipelago of theHebrides, separated from the Scottish mainland and from theInner Hebrides by the waters of theMinch, theLittle Minch, and theSea of the Hebrides. The Outer Hebrides are considered to be the traditional heartland of the Gaelic language. The islands form one of the 32council areas of Scotland, which since 1998 has used only the Gaelic form of its name, including in English language contexts. The council area is calledNa h-Eileanan an Iar ('the Western Isles') and its council isComhairle nan Eilean Siar ('Council of the Western Isles').
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from ancientmetamorphic rocks, and the climate is mild and oceanic. The 19 inhabited islands had an estimated population of 26,020 in 2024,[1] and there are more than 50 substantial uninhabited islands. The distance fromBarra Head to theButt of Lewis is roughly 210 kilometres (130 mi).
There are various important prehistoric structures, many of which pre-date the first written references to the islands byRoman and Greek authors. The Western Isles became part of theNorse kingdom of theSuðreyjar, which lasted for over 400 years, until sovereignty over the Outer Hebrides was transferred to Scotland by theTreaty of Perth in 1266. Control of the islands was then held byclan chiefs, principal amongst whom were theMacLeods,MacDonalds, and theMacNeils. TheHighland Clearances of the 19th century had a devastating effect on many communities, and it is only in recent years that population levels have ceased to decline. Much of the land is now under local control, and commercial activity is based on tourism,crofting, fishing, and weaving.
Sea transport is crucial for those who live and work in the Outer Hebrides, and a variety of ferry services operate between the islands and to mainland Scotland. Modern navigation systems now minimise the dangers, but in the past the stormy seas in the region have claimed many ships. The Gaelic language, religion, music and sport are important aspects of local culture, and there are numerousdesignated conservation areas to protect the natural environment.
The earliest surviving written references relating to the islands were made byPliny the Elder in hisNatural History, in which he states that there are 30Hebudes, and makes a separate reference toDumna, which Watson (1926) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides. Writing about 80 years later, in 140–150 AD,Ptolemy, drawing on the earlier naval expeditions ofAgricola, also distinguished between theEbudes, of which he writes there were only five (and thus possibly meaning theInner Hebrides) andDumna.[4][5]Dumna is cognate with theEarly Celticdumnos and means the "deep-sea isle".[5] Pliny probably took his information fromPytheas ofMassilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC. It is possible that Ptolemy did as well, as Agricola's information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality.[4][5] Breeze also suggests thatDumna might beLewis and Harris, the largest island of the Outer Hebrides although he conflates this single island with the name "Long Island".[4] Watson (1926) states that the meaning of Ptolemy'sEboudai is unknown and that the root may be pre-Celtic.[6] Murray (1966) claims that Ptolemy'sEbudae was originally derived from theOld NorseHavbredey, meaning "isles on the edge of the sea". This idea is often repeated but no firm evidence of this derivation has emerged.[7]
Other early written references include the flight of theNemed people from Ireland toDomon, which is mentioned in the 12th-centuryLebor Gabála Érenn and a 13th-century poem concerningRaghnall mac Gofraidh, then the heir to the throne ofMann and the Isles, who is said to have "broken the gate ofMagh Domhna".Magh Domhna means "the plain of Domhna (or Domon)", but the precise meaning of the text is not clear.[5]
InIrish mythology the islands were the home of theFomorians, described as "huge and ugly" and "ship men of the sea". They were pirates, extracting tribute from the coasts of Ireland and one of their kings wasIndech mac Dé Domnand (i.e. Indech, son of the goddess Domnu, who ruled over the deep seas).[8]
The islands form an archipelago whose major islands areLewis and Harris,North Uist,Benbecula,South Uist, andBarra. Lewis and Harris has an area of 2,178.98 square kilometres (841 sq mi)[9] and is the largest island in Scotland and the third-largest in theBritish Isles, after Great Britain and Ireland.[10][11] It incorporatesLewis in the north andHarris in the south, both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands, although they are connected by land. The island does not have a single name in either English or Gaelic, and is referred to as "Lewis and Harris", "Lewis with Harris", "Harris with Lewis" etc.[12]
The largest islands are deeply indented by arms of the sea such asLoch Ròg,Loch Seaforth andLoch nam Madadh. There are also more than 7,500 freshwater lochs in the Outer Hebrides, about 24% of the total for the whole of Scotland.[13] North and South Uist and Lewis, in particular, have landscapes with a high percentage of fresh water and a maze and complexity of loch shapes. Harris has fewer large bodies of water but has innumerable small lochans.Loch Langavat on Lewis is 11 kilometres (7 mi) long, and has several large islands in its midst, includingEilean Mòr. Although Loch Suaineabhal has only 25% of Loch Langavat's surface area, it has a mean depth of 33 metres (108 ft) and is the most voluminous on the island.[14] OfLoch Sgadabhagh onNorth Uist it has been said that "there is probably no other loch in Britain which approaches Loch Scadavay in irregularity and complexity of outline."[15] Loch Bì is South Uist's largest loch and at 8 kilometres (5 mi) long it all but cuts the island in two.[16]
Much of the western coastline of the islands ismachair, a fertile low-lying dune pastureland.[17] Lewis is comparatively flat, and largely consists of treeless moors of blanketpeat. The highest eminence is Mealisval at 574 m (1,883 ft) in the south west. Most ofHarris is mountainous, with large areas of exposed rock andClisham, the archipelago's onlyCorbett, reaches 799 m (2,621 ft) in height.[2][18] North and South Uist and Benbecula (sometimes collectively referred to asThe Uists) have sandy beaches and wide cultivated areas of machair to the west and virtually uninhabited mountainous areas to the east. The highest peak here isBeinn Mhòr at 620 metres (2,034 ft).[19] The Uists and their immediate outliers have a combined area of 745.4 square kilometres (288 sq mi). This includes the Uists themselves and the islands linked to them by causeways and bridges.[20] Barra is 58.75 square kilometres (23 sq mi) in extent and has a rugged interior, surrounded by machair and extensive beaches.[21][22]
The scenic qualities of the islands are reflected in the fact that three of Scotland's fortynational scenic areas (NSAs) are located here. The national scenic areas are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development,[23] and are considered to represent the type of scenic beauty "popularly associated with Scotland and for which it is renowned".[24] The three NSA within the Outer Hebrides are:
Much of the archipelago is a protected habitat, including both the islands and the surrounding waters. There are 53Sites of Special Scientific Interest of which the largest are Loch an Duin, North Uist (151 square kilometres (37,000 acres)) and North Harris (127 square kilometres (31,000 acres)).[28][29]South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plantSlender Naiad, which is aEuropean Protected Species.[30][31]
There has been considerable controversy overhedgehogs on the Uists. Hedgehogs are not native to the islands but were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests. Their spread posed a threat to the eggs of ground-nesting wading birds. In 2003 Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area, but these were halted in 2007; trapped animals are now relocated to the mainland.[32][33]
Nationally important populations of breeding waders are present in the Outer Hebrides, includingcommon redshank,dunlin,lapwing andringed plover. The islands also provide a habitat for other important species such ascorncrake,hen harrier,golden eagle andotter. Offshore,basking shark and various species of whale and dolphin can often be seen,[34] and the remoter islands' seabird populations are of international significance.St Kilda has 60,000 northern gannets, amounting to 24% of the world population; 49,000 breeding pairs ofLeach's petrel, up to 90% of the European population; and 136,000 pairs ofpuffin and 67,000 northern fulmar pairs, about 30% and 13% of the respective UK totals.[35]Mingulay is an important breeding ground forrazorbills, with 9,514 pairs, 6.3% of the European population.[36]
The islands' total population was 26,502 at the 2001 census, and the 2011 figure was 27,684.[39] During the same periodScottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702.[42] By 2024 the population was 26,020.[1] The largest settlement in the Outer Hebrides isStornoway on Lewis,[43][44] which has a population of about 8,100.[45]
The population estimate for 2019 was 26,720 according to a Comhairle nan Eilean Siar report which added that "the population of the Outer Hebrides is ageing" and that "young adults [...] leave the islands for further education or employment purposes". Of the total population, 6,953 people reside in the "Stornoway settlement Laxdale (Lacasdal), Sandwick (Sanndabhaig) and Newmarket" with the balance distributed over 280 townships.[46]
In addition to the major North Ford (Oitir Mhòr) and South Ford causeways that connect North Uist to Benbecula via the northern of theGrimsays, and another causeway from Benbecula to South Uist, several other islands are linked by smaller causeways or bridges.Great Bernera andScalpay have bridge connections to Lewis and Harris respectively, with causeways linkingBaleshare andBerneray to North Uist;Eriskay to South Uist;Flodaigh,Seana Bhaile and the southernGrimsay to Benbecula; and theVatersay Causeway linkingVatersay to Barra.[16][47][48] This means that all the inhabited islands are now connected to at least one other island by a land transport route.
Geographic distribution of Gaelic speakers in Scotland (2011)
There are more than fifty uninhabited islands greater in size than 40 hectares (99 acres) in the Outer Hebrides, including theBarra Isles,Flannan Isles,Monach Islands, theShiant Islands and the islands ofLoch Ròg.[50] In common with the other main island chains of Scotland, many of the more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries, in some cases after continuous habitation since the prehistoric period. More than 35 such islands have been identified in the Outer Hebrides alone.[51] On Barra Head, for example,Historic Scotland have identified eighty-three archaeological sites on the island, the majority being of a pre-medieval date. In the 18th century, the population was over fifty, but the last native islanders had left by 1931. The island became completely uninhabited by 1980 with the automation of the lighthouse.[52]
Some of the smaller islands continue to contribute to modern culture. The "Mingulay Boat Song", although evocative of island life, was written after the abandonment of the island in 1938[53] andTaransay hosted theBBC television seriesCastaway 2000. Others have played a part in Scottish history. On 4 May 1746, the "Young Pretender"Charles Edward Stuart hid onEilean Liubhaird with some of his men for four days whilstRoyal Navy vessels patrolled the Minch.[54]
Smaller isles andskerries and other island groups pepper theNorth Atlantic surrounding the main islands. Some are not geologically part of the Outer Hebrides, but are administratively and in most cases culturally, part ofComhairle nan Eilean Siar. 73 kilometres (45 mi) to the west of Lewis liesSt Kilda, now uninhabited except for a small military base.[55] A similar distance to the north of Lewis areNorth Rona andSula Sgeir, two small and remote islands. While Rona used to support a small population who grew grain and raised cattle,Sula Sgeir is an inhospitable rock. Thousands ofnorthern gannets nest here, and by special arrangement some of their young, known asgugas, are harvested annually by the men ofNess.[56] The status ofRockall, which is 367 kilometres (228 mi) to the west of North Uist and which theIsland of Rockall Act 1972 decreed to be a part of the Western Isles, remains a matter of international dispute.[57][58]
^abcdPart of theStornoway settlement area[61] which has a population of ca. 6,953 (2020).
^abcdNot listed in mid-2020 census, indicating a population of less than 500.
The dispersed settlements consisting of rural settlements and outwith settlements account for about two-thirds of the population of the council area, since the total population of the table is about 9,000.
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed fromLewisian gneiss. These are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe, having been formed in thePrecambrian period up to three billion years ago. In addition to the Outer Hebrides, they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of theMoine Thrust and on the islands ofColl andTiree.[62] These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosedmarble,quartzite andmica schist and intruded by later basalticdykes and granite magma.[63] The gneiss's delicate pink colours are exposed throughout the islands and it is sometimes referred to by geologists as "The Old Boy".[64][Note 2]
Granite intrusions are found in the parish ofBarvas in west Lewis, and another forms the summit plateau of the mountainRoineabhal in Harris. The granite here isanorthosite, and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of theMoon. There are relatively small outcrops ofTriassic sandstone atBroad Bay near Stornoway. The Shiant Islands and St Kilda are formed from much later tertiarybasalt and basalt andgabbros respectively. The sandstone at Broad Bay was once thought to beTorridonian orOld Red Sandstone.[12][66][67]
The Outer Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerlylatitude, due to the influence of theNorth Atlantic Current. The average temperature is 6 °C (44 °F) in January and 14 °C (57 °F) in summer. The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1,100 millimetres (43 in) and sunshine hours range from 1,100 to 1,200 per year. The summer days are relatively long and May to August is the driest period.[68] Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. According to the writerW. H. Murray if a visitor asks an islander for a weather forecast "he will not, like a mainlander answer dry, wet or sunny, but quote you a figure from theBeaufort Scale."[69] There are gales one day in six at theButt of Lewis and small fish are blown onto the grass on top of 190 metre (620 ft) high cliffs atBarra Head during winter storms.[70]
In Scotland, the CelticIron Age way of life, often troubled but never extinguished by Rome, re-asserted itself when the legions abandoned any permanent occupation in 211 AD.[80] Hanson (2003) writes: "For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long-term impact on Scotland. On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment, economy, or, indeed, society. The impact appears to have been very limited. The general picture remains one of broad continuity, not of disruption ... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development."[81] The Romans' direct impact on the Highlands and Islands was scant and there is no evidence that they ever actually landed in the Outer Hebrides.[82]
The laterIron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probablyPictish, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states that in relation to KingBridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD: "As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence."[83] The island of Pabbay is the site of the Pabbay Stone, the only extantPictish symbol stone in the Outer Hebrides. This 6th centurystele shows a flower, V-rod and lunar crescent to which has been added a later and somewhat crude cross.[84]
Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century AD and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades, especially following the success ofHarald Fairhair at theBattle of Hafrsfjord in 872.[85][86] In the Western IslesKetill Flatnose was the dominant figure of the mid 9th century, by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with otherNorse leaders. These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown, although in practice the latter's control was fairly limited.[87] Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 whenEdgar, King of Scotland formally signed the islands over toMagnus III of Norway.[88] The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conqueredOrkney, the Hebrides and theIsle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands‘ petty kingdoms. By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control, although at a price. Hisskald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis "fire played high in the heaven" as "flame spouted from the houses" and that in the Uists "the king dyed his sword red in blood".[88] Thompson (1968) provides a more literal translation: "Fire played in the fig-trees of Liodhus; it mounted up to heaven. Far and wide the people were driven to flight. The fire gushed out of the houses".[89]
The Hebrides were now part of Kingdom of the Isles, whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway. The Kingdom had two parts: theSuðr-eyjar or South Isles encompassing theHebrides and theIsle of Man; and theNorðr-eyjar or North Isles of Orkney andShetland. This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156, at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out underSomerled, the Norse-Celtic kinsman of the Manx royal house.[90]
Following the ill-fated 1263 expedition ofHaakon IV of Norway, the Outer Hebrides along with the Isle of Man, were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland a result of the 1266Treaty of Perth.[91] Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and placenames, the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited. The best known find from this time is theLewis chessmen, which date from the mid 12th century.[92]
As the Norse era drew to a close theNorse-speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic-speakingclan chiefs including theMacLeods of Lewis and Harris, theMacDonalds of theUists andMacNeil of Barra.[89][93][Note 3] This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonaldLords of the Isles, based onIslay, were in theory these chiefs' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control.[97]
The growing threat that Clan Donald posed to the Scottish crown led to the forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles byJames IV in 1493, but although the king had the power to subdue the organised military might of the Hebrides, he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance.[98] TheHouse of Stuart's attempts to control the Outer Hebrides were then at first desultory and little more than punitive expeditions. In 1506 theEarl of Huntly besieged and captured Stornoway Castle using cannon. In 1540James V himself conducted a royal tour, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but all too soon the clans were at loggerheads again.[99]
In 1598 KingJames VI authorised some "Gentleman Adventurers" from Fife to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis". Initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod, who based their forces onBearasaigh inLoch Ròg. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful, and in due course Stornoway became aBurgh of Barony.[100][101] By this time Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail, (later theEarls of Seaforth), who pursued a more enlightened approach, investing in fishing in particular. The historian W. C. MacKenzie was moved to write:[102]
At the end of the 17th century, the picture we have of Lewis that of a people pursuing their avocation in peace, but not in plenty. The Seaforths ..., besides establishing orderly Government in the island.. had done a great deal to rescue the people from the slough of ignorance and incivility in which they found themselves immersed. But in the sphere of economics their policy apparently was of little service to the community.
The Seaforth's royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during theWars of the Three Kingdoms byCromwell's troops, who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway and in 1645 Lewismen fought on the royalist side at theBattle of Auldearn.[103] A new era of Hebridean involvement in the affairs of the wider world was about to commence.
With the implementation of theTreaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the newKingdom of Great Britain, but the clans' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong. A considerable number of islandmen "came out" in support of the JacobiteEarl of Mar in the"15" although the response to the1745 rising was muted.[103] Nonetheless the aftermath of the decisiveBattle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt. The British government's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them. This may have brought peace to the islands, but in the following century it came at a terrible price.
TheHighland Clearances of the 19th century destroyed communities throughout theHighlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms.[104] For example, ColonelGordon ofCluny, owner of Barra, South Uist and Benbecula, evicted thousands of islanders using trickery and cruelty, and even offered to sell Barra to the government as a penal colony.[105] Islands such asFuaigh Mòr were completely cleared of their populations and even today the subject is recalled with bitterness and resentment in some areas.[106] The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands'kelp industry, which thrived from the 18th century until the end of theNapoleonic Wars in 1815[107] and large scale emigration became endemic. For example, hundreds left North Uist forCape Breton,Nova Scotia.[108] The pre-clearance population of the island had been almost 5,000, although by 1841 it had fallen to 3,870 and was only 2,349 by 1931.[109][110]
TheHighland potato famine (Gaiseadh a’ bhuntàta, in Scottish Gaelic), caused by a blight, started in 1846 and had a serious impact, because many islanders were crofters; potatoes were a staple of their diet.[111] Violent riots became common.[112] Charities, encouraged by George Pole[113] and others in the Commissariat (a military agency) encouraged charities to come to the rescue. The Free Church was particularly helpful, "delivering oatmeal to famine-affected families all across the West Highlands and Islands", according to one report. Another report states that the Church "was prompt in organising an efficient system of private charity across the Hebrides and on the Western seaboard. It cooperated with the Edinburgh and Glasgow Relief Committees".[114][115]
An interdenominational charity was in place by early 1847 and took the most significant role in famine relief.[116] Some landowners also provided a great deal of assistance, according to one history of the region: "MacLeod of Dunvegan bought in food for his people, some eight thousand of them" ... MacLean of Ardgour provided food, and introduced new crops into the area - peas, cabbages and carrots ... Sir James Matheson on Lewis spent £329,000 (Equivalent to £37,000,000 in 2024[117]) on improving his lands, hoping to provide a more secure future for his people". The government of Britain provided some assistance, thanks to SirCharles Trevelyan, who arranged for food distribution at Portree and Tobermory. TheBritish Association for the Relief of Distress in Ireland and the Highlands and Islands of Scotland also helped as did donations received from North America. The blight struck again over the next two years, requiring an extra tax on landowners to help feed the population. The British government began encouraging mass emigration.[118][119]
For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism. During the summer season in the 1860s and 1870s five thousand inhabitants of Lewis could be found inWick on the mainland of Scotland, employed on the fishing boats and at the quaysides.[120] Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many[121] and the archipelago's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries. By 2001 the population of North Uist was only 1,271.[44][110]
The work of theNapier Commission and theCongested Districts Board, and the passing of theCrofting Act of 1886 helped, but social unrest continued.[122] In July 1906 grazing land onVatersay was raided by landless men from Barra and its isles.Lady Gordon Cathcart took legal action against the "raiders" but the visiting judge took the view that she had neglected her duties as a landowner and that "long indifference to the necessities of the cottars had gone far to drive them to exasperation".[123] Millennia of continuous occupation notwithstanding, many of the remoter islands were abandoned —Mingulay in 1912,Hirta in 1930, andCeann Iar in 1942 among them. This process involved a transition from these places being perceived as relatively self-sufficient agricultural economies[124] to a view becoming held by both island residents and outsiders alike that they lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy.[125]
There were gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatchedblackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design.[when?] The creation of theHighlands and Islands Development Board and the discovery of substantial deposits ofNorth Sea oil in 1965, the establishment of a unitary local authority for the islands in 1975 and more recently therenewables sector have all contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades. TheArnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries.[126]Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, the local authority, employs 2,000 people, making it the largest employer in the Outer Hebrides.[127] See also the "Innse Gall area plan 2010"[128] and theComhairle's "Factfile – Economy".[129]
Modern commercial activities centre on tourism,crofting, fishing, and weaving including the manufacture ofHarris tweed. Crofting remains popular especially onLewis and Harris (population 21,000) with over 920 active crofters according to a 2020 report: "with crofts ranging in size from as small as a single hectare to having access to thousands of hectares through the medium of community grazing". Crofters can apply for subsidy grants; some of these are intended to help them find other avenues to supplement their incomes.[130] Some of the funding schemes available to crofters in the Hebrides include the "Basic Payment Scheme, the suckler beef support scheme, the upland sheep support scheme and the Less Favoured Area support scheme and the Crofting Agricultural Grant Scheme (CAGS), as of March 2020.[131]
According to the Scottish Government, "tourism is by far and away the mainstay industry" of the Outer Hebrides, "generating £65m in economic value for the islands, sustaining around 1000 jobs" The report adds that the "islands receive 219,000 visitors per year".[132]
Some of the larger islands havedevelopment trusts that support the local economy and, in striking contrast to the 19th and 20th century domination by absentee landlords, more than two thirds of the Western Isles population now lives on community-owned estates.[133][134] However the economic position of the islands remains relatively precarious. The Western Isles, including Stornoway, are defined byHighlands and Islands Enterprise as an economically "Fragile Area" and they have an estimated trade deficit of some £163.4 million. Overall, the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector, and fishing and fish farming in particular are vulnerable to environmental impacts, changing market pressures, and European legislation.[129]
There is some optimism about the possibility of future developments in, for example, renewable energy generation, tourism, and education, and after declines in the 20th century the population has stabilised since 2003, although it is ageing.[129][135] A 2019 report, using key assumptions, (mortality, fertility and migration) was less optimistic. It predicted that the population is "projected to fall to 22,709 by 2043"; that translates to a 16% decline, or 4,021 people, between 2018 and 2043.[136]
The UK’s largest community-owned wind farm, Beinn Ghrideag, is located outside Stornoway, and operated by Point and Sandwick Trust (PST).[137][138][139] Beinn Ghrideag is a 9 MW project (consisting of three 3 MWwind turbines) that generates 30 GWh of electricity annually; its profits fund 80% of the Western Isles woodland project, which plants hundreds of thousands of native trees across the islands.[140]
The Isle of Lewis web site states that Stornoway's sheltered harbour has been important for centuries; it was named Steering Bay byVikings who often visited.[141] A December 2020 report stated that a new deep water terminal was to be developed, the Stornoway Deep Water Terminal, using a £49 million investment. The plan included berths for cruise ships as long as 360 meters, berths for large cargo vessels, and a freight ferry berth.[142]
The local authority isComhairle nan Eilean Siar, based at the Council Offices in Stornoway. The council is often known locally simply as "theComhairle" ora' Chomhairle.[143]
After the Scottish crown claimed control of the islands, they were included inInverness-shire. In 1661 Inverness-shire was split, with the northern parts becoming a new county calledRoss-shire.[144] The interests of landowners influenced the boundary of the new county.Kenneth Mackenzie, 3rd Earl of Seaforth, owned extensive lands inRoss on the mainland and also owned theIsle of Lewis. Lewis was therefore included in Ross-shire, whereas the rest of the Outer Hebrides stayed in Inverness-shire (includingHarris, despite it being part of the same island as Lewis).[145] In 1889, Ross-shire merged withCromartyshire to form a new county calledRoss and Cromarty.[146][147]
Local government was reformed in 1975 under theLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland's counties,burghs andlandward districts. In most of Scotland a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts was used, but a single-tier structure of island areas was used forOrkney,Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, the latter being named the Western Isles.[148] Further local government reform in 1996 introduced single-tier council areas across all of Scotland. The councils of the three island areas created in 1975, including the Western Isles, continued to provide the same services after 1996, but their areas were redesignated as council areas.[149][150][151]
In 1998, following theLocal Government (Gaelic Names) (Scotland) Act 1997, the Western Isles Council formally changed the English language version of the council area's name from Western Isles toNa h-Eileanan an Iar (Gaelic for 'the Western Isles'), and the name of the council toComhairle nan Eilean Siar ('Council of the Western Isles'), to be used in both English and Gaelic contexts.[154]
During the2014 Scottish independence referendum the area voted against independence by a margin of 53.42% (10,544) to 46.58% (9,195) in favour on a turnout of 86.2%[155]
In 2022, as part of theLevelling Up White Paper, an "Island Forum" was proposed, which would allow local policymakers and residents in the Outer Hebrides to work alongside their counterparts inShetland,Orkney,Anglesey and theIsle of Wight on common issues, such as broadband connectivity, and provide a platform for them to communicate directly with the government on the challenges island communities face in terms of levelling up.[156][157]
The Outer Hebrides have historically been a very strongScottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) speaking area. Both the 1901 and 1921 census reported that all parishes were over 75% Gaelic speaking, including areas of high population density such as Stornoway. However, theEducation (Scotland) Act 1872 mandated English-only education, and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language. People still living can recall being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school.[158] By 1971 most areas were still more than 75% Gaelic speaking – with the exception ofStornoway,Benbecula andSouth Uist at 50–74%.[159]
In the 2001 census, each island overall was over 50% Gaelic speaking –South Uist (71%),Harris (69%),Barra (68%),North Uist (67%),Lewis (56%) andBenbecula (56%). With 59.3% of Gaelic speakers or a total of 15,723 speakers, this made the Outer Hebrides the most strongly coherent Gaelic speaking area in Scotland.[159][160]
TheGaelic Language (Scotland) Act was enacted by theScottish Parliament in 2005 to provide continuing support for the language.[161] However, by 2011 the overall percentage of Gaelic speakers in the Outer Hebrides had fallen to 52%, due to white English (Anglo Saxon) settlers.[162]
In modern Gaelic the islands are sometimes referred to collectively asAn t-Eilean Fada (the Long Island)[64] orNa h-Eileanan a-Muigh (the Outer Isles).[163]Innse Gall (islands of the foreigners or strangers) is also heard occasionally, a name that was originally used by mainlandHighlanders when the islands were ruled by the Norse.[164]
The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins. Various Gaelic terms are used repeatedly:[165]
Gaelic root
Derived forms
Anglicised as
Origin and meaning
-aigh
-ay/-ey
generally from the Norseøy meaning "island"
beag
bheag,bige,bhige,beaga,bheaga
beg
small
dearg
dhearg,deirge,dheirge,deirg,dheirg,dearga,dhearga
derg
red
dubh
dhubh,duibh,dhuibh,duibhe,dhuibhe,dubha,dhubha
black; hidden
glas
ghlas,glais,ghlais,glaise,ghlaise,glasa,ghlasa
grey, green
ear
east, eastern
eilean
eilein,eileanan
island
iar
west, western
mòr
mhòr,mòire,mhòire,mòra,mhòra,mòir,mhòir
more
big, great
rubha
rubhannan
promontory
sgeir
sgeirean
skerry
skerry; often refers to a rock or rocks that lie submerged at high tide. From Old Norsesker.
Other ferries operate between some of the islands.[166]
National Rail services are available for onward journeys, from stations atOban andMallaig, which has direct services to Glasgow. However, parliamentary approval notwithstanding, plans in the 1890s to laya railway connection to Ullapool were unable to obtain sufficient funding.[167]
There are scheduled flights fromStornoway,Benbecula andBarra airports both inter-island and to the mainland. Barra's airport is claimed to be the only one in the world to have scheduled flights landing on a beach. At high water the runways are under the sea so flight times vary with the tide.[168][169]
Bus Na Comhairle Optare Solo YJ14 BDY seen in Sandwick, May 2020
Bus na Comhairle (meaning "Bus of the Council") is the council-owned local bus company of the Western Isles. The company serves the Broadbay area of Lewis with 7 buses: 6 Optare Solos and 1 ADL Enviro 200.
The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, andlighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at locations from Barra Head in the south to the Butt of Lewis in the north.[170] There are numerous sites of wrecked ships, and theFlannan Isles are the location of an enduring mystery that occurred in December 1900, when all three lighthouse keepers vanished without trace.[171]
Annie Jane, a three-masted immigrant ship out ofLiverpool bound forMontreal, Canada, struck rocks off the West Beach of Vatersay during a storm on Tuesday 28 September 1853. Within ten minutes the ship began to founder and break up, casting 450 people into the sea. In spite of the conditions, islanders tried to rescue the passengers and crew. The remains of 350 men, women and children were buried in the dunes behind the beach and a small cairn and monument marks the site.[172]
The tiny Beasts of Holm off the east coast of Lewis were the site of the sinking ofHMS Iolaire during the first few hours of 1919,[173] one of the worst maritime disasters in United Kingdom waters during the 20th century.Calvay in the Sound of Barra provided the inspiration forCompton Mackenzie's novelWhisky Galore after theSS Politician ran aground there with a cargo ofsingle malt whisky in 1941.
Christianity has deep roots in the Western Isles, but owing mainly to the different allegiances of the clans in the past, the people in the northern islands (Lewis, Harris, North Uist) have historically been predominantlyPresbyterian, and those of the southern islands (Benbecula, South Uist, Barra) predominantlyRoman Catholic.[174]
At the time of the 2001 Census, 42% of the population identified themselves as being affiliated with theChurch of Scotland, with 13% Roman Catholic and 28% with other Christian churches. Many of this last group belong to theFree Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of theSabbath.[175] 11% stated that they had no religion.[Note 4] This made the Western Isles the Scottish council area with the smallest percentage of non-religious in the population. There are also smallEpiscopalian congregations in Lewis and Harris, and the Outer Hebrides are part of theDiocese of Argyll and The Isles in both the Episcopalian and Catholic traditions.[177][178]
Gaelic music is popular in the islands and the Lewis and Harris Traditional Music Society plays an active role in promoting the genre.[179]Fèis Bharraigh began in 1981 with the aim of developing the practice and study of the Gaelic language, literature, music, drama and culture on the islands of Barra and Vatersay. This two-week festival has inspired 43 otherfeisean throughout Scotland.[180] The LewisPipe Band was founded in 1904 and the Lewis and Harris Piping Society in 1977.[179]
Outdoor activities includingrugby, football,golf,shinty, fishing, riding, canoeing, athletics, and multi-sports are popular in the Western Isles. The Hebridean Challenge is an adventure race, run in five daily stages, which takes place along the length of the islands and includes hill and road running, road andmountain biking, short sea swims and demanding sea kayaking sections. There are four main sports centres:Ionad Spors Leodhais in Stornoway, which has a 25 m swimming pool; Harris Sports Centre;Lionacleit Sports Centre on Benbecula; andCastlebay Sports Centre on Barra. The Western Isles is a member of theInternational Island Games Association.[181][182]
South Uist is home to theAskernish Golf Course. The oldest links in the Outer Hebrides, it was designed byOld Tom Morris. Although it was in use until the 1930s, its existence was largely forgotten until 2005 and it is now being restored to Morris's original design.[183][184]
^Murray (1973) notes that "Western Isles" has tended to mean "Outer Hebrides" since the creation of theNa h-Eileanan an Iar or Western Isles parliamentary constituency in 1918. The phrase can also be used to refer to theHebrides in general. Murray also notes that "Gneiss Islands"—a reference to the underlying geology – is another name used to refer to the Outer Hebrides but that its use is "confined to books".[3]
^Lewisian gneiss is sometimes described as the oldest rock found in Europe, but trondhjemite gneiss recently measured at Siurua in Finland has been dated to 3.4–3.5 Ga.[65]
^The transitional relationships between Norse and Gaelic-speaking rulers are complex. TheGall-Ghàidhels who dominated much of the Irish Sea region and western Scotland at this time were of joint Gaelic and Scandinavian origin. When Somerled wrested the southern Inner Hebrides fromGodred the Black in 1156, this was the beginnings of a break with nominal Norse rule in the Hebrides. Godred remained the ruler of Mann and the Outer Hebrides, but two years later Somerled's invasion of the former caused him to flee to Norway. Norse control was further weakened in the ensuring century, but the Hebrides were not formally ceded by Norway until 1266.[94][95] The transitions from one language to another are also complex. For example, many Scandinavian sources from this period of time typically refer to individuals as having a Scandinavian first name and a Gaelic by-name.[96]
^ The 2001 census statistics used are based on local authority areas but do not specifically identify Free Church or Episcopal adherents. 4% of the respondents did not answer this census question and the total for all other religions combined is 1 per cent.[176]
^Gammeltoft, Peder "Scandinavian Naming-Systems in the Hebrides: A Way of Understanding how the Scandinavians were in Contact with Gaels and Picts?" in Ballin Smithet al (2007) p. 480
^Thompson (1968) p. 41. It is not clear from the text which of MacKenzie's five books quoted in the bibliography spanning the years 1903–52 the quote is taken from.
Armit, Ian (1998)Scotland's Hidden History. Tempus (in association with Historic Scotland).ISBN0-7486-6067-4
Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002)In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland. Stroud. Tempus.ISBN0-7524-2517-X
Ballin Smith, Beverley; Taylor, Simon; Williams, Gareth (eds) (2007)West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-Borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300. Leiden. Koninklijke Brill.ISBN978-90-04-15893-1
Benvie, Neil (2004)Scotland's Wildlife. London. Aurum Press.ISBN1-85410-978-2
Buxton, Ben (1995)Mingulay: An Island and Its People. Edinburgh. Birlinn.ISBN1-874744-24-6
Downham, Clare (2007)Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Edinburgh. Dunedin Academic Press.ISBN978-1-903765-89-0
Gillen, Con (2003)Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Harpenden. Terra Publishing.ISBN1-903544-09-2
Gregory, Donald (1881)The History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625. Edinburgh. Birlinn. 2008 reprint – originally published by Thomas D. Morrison.ISBN1-904607-57-8
Hanson, William S. "The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes", in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003)Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archaeology and History, 8000 BC – AD 1000. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.
McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007)Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn.ISBN978-1-84158-357-0
Maclean, Charles (1977)Island on the Edge of the World: the Story of St. Kilda. Edinburgh. Canongate.ISBN0-903937-41-7
Malhotra, R. (1992)Anthropology of Development: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Professor I.P. Singh. New Delhi. Mittal.ISBN81-7099-328-8
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