| Eyalet-i Ḳıbrıṣ 1571–1670 1745–1748 Sancağı Ḳıbrıṣ 1670–1703 1784–1878 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eyalet/Sanjak of theOttoman Empire | |||||||||
| 1571–1878 | |||||||||
.png) Ottoman Cyprus in 1609 in red. The rest of the Ottoman Empire in light-yellow | |||||||||
| Capital | Nicosia | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 1571 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1878 | ||||||||
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| Today part of |  Cyprus Northern Cyprus Akrotiri and Dhekelia | ||||||||
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TheEyalet of Cyprus (Ottoman Turkish:ایالت قبرص,Eyālet-i Ḳıbrıṣ)[1] was aneyalet/province of theOttoman Empire made up of the island ofCyprus, which was annexed into the Empire in 1571.[2] The Ottomans changed the way they administered Cyprus multiple times. It was asanjak/sub-province (سانجاغى قبرص,Sancağı Ḳıbrıṣ) of theEyalet of the Archipelago from 1670 to 1703, and again from 1784 to 1878; a fief of theGrand Vizier (1703–1745 and 1748–1784); and again an eyalet for the short period from 1745 to 1748.[3]
DuringVenetian rule, the Ottomans at times raided Cyprus. In 1489, the first year of Venetian control, Ottomans attacked theKarpass Peninsula, pillaging and taking captives to besold into slavery.[4] In 1539 the Ottoman fleet attacked and destroyedLimassol.[4] Fearing the ever-expandingOttoman Empire, the Venetians had fortifiedFamagusta,Nicosia, andKyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey.
In the summer of 1570, the Ottomans struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command ofLala Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed nearLimassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege toNicosia. The city fell on September 9, 1570; 20,000 Nicosians were massacred and everychurch, public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold asslaves were spared.[5][6]
Word of themassacre spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. The citizens of Famagusta, on the other hand, led by Venetian commanderMarco Antonio Bragadin, put up a heroic resistance which led to thesiege of the city for about a year, from September 1570 until August 1571. When the Ottomans eventually breached the fortifications, a massacre of most remaining Christians in the city followed, despite the Ottoman commander previously agreeing that in return for the city's surrender, Christians would be guaranteed safe passage to Crete.Bragadin had his ears and nose cut off and, after being thrown in prison for two weeks, he was dragged round the walls with sacks of earth and stone on his back, then tied naked to a column in the main square andskinned alive.[7][8][9][10]
The fall of Famagusta marked the end of the Venetian rule and the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus, with Lala Mustafa Pasha becoming the island’s first Turkish Governor.
On 25 May 1571,Pope Pius V formed theHoly League, a coalition between thePapal States,Malta,Habsburg Spain, theRepublic of Venice, theRepublic of Genoa, and some other Italian states. Four months later, on 7 October, the naval forces of the League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command ofDon John of Austria, defeated the Turkish fleet at theBattle of Lepanto in one of the decisive battles in general — and naval battles in particular — of world history. The victory over the Ottomans, however, came too late to help Cyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries.
In 1573 the Venetians left Cyprus, removing the influence of theRoman Catholic Church.
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As soon as Nicosia was conquered, Cyprus was declared aneyalet under the administration of abeylerbey, andLala Mustafa Pasha, the former beylerbey ofAvlonya, was appointed to the post. Cyprus was divided into threesanjaks: Famagusta, Kyrenia and Paphos. Additionally, the sanjaks ofAlâiye,Tarsus,İçel,Sis,Zülkadriye andTripoli (Trablusşam) on the mainland were placed under the administration of the Cyprus eyalet. Cyprus was also divided into severalkazas:Tuzla,Limassol,Episkopi,Kythrea,Paphos,Kukla,Lefka,Morphou,Hirsofu,Famagusta,Kyrenia andMesariye.
Thesekazas each had their ownkadı ornaib.[11] The sanjak of Tripoli, however, was removed from the jurisdiction of Cyprus in 1573 due to its distance and given to theDamascus Eyalet. The sanjaks of İçel, Alâiye and Tarsus were also removed in 1610 and given to the newly createdAdana Eyalet.[12]
However, after theOttoman conquest of Crete, the Cypriot Orthodox Church argued that Cyprus had lost importance, that trade volume had decreased and that people were emigrating. It thus requested a change in the administrative status as Cyprus could not afford remaining an eyalet. Thus, in 1670, Cyprus became a sanjak under theEyalet of the Archipelago, under the direct control of theKapudan Pasha, the head of the Ottoman Navy. This control was exercised through an appointedmütesellim.[11] However, under this system, localaghas were the tax collectors. This magnified their power and resulted in discontent, with the rivalry between them causing a two-year long revolt in the 1680s, led byBoyacıoğlu Mehmed Agha.[13] This proved that the existing system caused a power vacuum and was ineffective, so in 1703 Cyprus was placed directly under the control of theGrand Vizier, administered on his behalf by amuhassıl. To reduce the powers of the aghas, themuhassıl was given the power to collect taxes, as well as increased political and military authority. Between 1745 and 1748, Cyprus briefly became an eyalet again. These three years, especially the reign of governorEbubekir Pasha (1746–48), were a period of development and relative prosperity. After the end of Ebubekir Pasha's tenure, Cyprus reverted to its former status.[11]
Greek Cypriots had two very important administrative positions: the Archbishop, who headed the Orthodox Church, was recognized as the sole representative of the Greek Cypriot population from the 1670s onwards, and theDragoman, chosen from the candidates determined by the Archbishop.[11]
Themuhassıl administration slowly became more and more dysfunctional. In 1764,muhassılÇil Osman Agha was killed amidst a chaotic environment caused by his rule. Meanwhile, the ongoing war with Russia meant a deterioration in the people's welfare. Thus, on the request of the Archbishop and the Dragoman, Cyprus was placed directly under the administration of theImperial Council in 1785, with themuhassıl being directly appointed. These newmuhassıls lacked some of their old powers, which greatly increased the influence of the Orthodox clergy as they became tax collectors.[11][14] In 1839, with the reforms ofAbdülmecid I, the island once again became a sanjak of the Eyalet of the Archipelago but gained significant autonomy. The island was governed by amutasarrıf, thekazas were consolidated into six largerkazas with their own administrative and judicial councils. A sanjak administrative council, in whichTurks,Greeks and other minorities were proportionally represented, was established.[11]
In 1861, Cyprus became an independentmutasarrifate under the direct control of theSublime Porte. However, this changed again in 1868, when Cyprus became a sanjak under theVilayet of the Archipelago under the newly establishedvilayet system. This would not last long, as the vilayet was administered fromÇanakkale, and the long distance made the administration impractical. With the efforts of ArchbishopSophronios III of Cyprus, as well as given the drought and ravages of locusts, Cyprus was made an independent mutasarrifate once again in 1870. This arrangement lasted until 1878, when the British took over the island.[11][15][16]
The Ottoman occupation brought about two radical changes to the history of the island: A new ethnic element appeared on the island, theTurks, while Cypriots now had a new ruler, the Ottomans.
TheOttoman Empire gavetimars—land grants—to soldiers under the condition that they and their families would stay there permanently. An action of far-reaching importance because the predefined soldiers became the nucleus of the island's Turkish community. During the 17th century the Turkish population grew rapidly, partly by Greek conversion (includingconverts who retained some pre-Islamic practices) joined to them. Most of the Turks who had settled on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus—although not sovereignty[clarification needed]—was ceded to Britain in 1878. The distinction between the two groups was by bothreligion andlanguage.
The Ottomans applied themillet system to Cyprus, which allowed religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities. This system reinforced the position of theOrthodox Church as theethno-religious institution of the ethnic Greek population. Gradually, theArchbishop of Cyprus became not only religious but ethnic leader as well, something the Ottoman Turks promoted, wanting to have somebody responsible for the loyalty of the Greek flock. In this way, the Church undertook the task of the guardian of the Greek cultural legacy until the island was ceded to Britain.
| Rise of nationalism in the Balkans Nationalism under theOttoman Empire |
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Many Greek Cypriots supported theGreek independence effort that began in 1821, leading to severe reprisals by theOttoman Empire. On 15 October 1821, a massiveTurkish mob seized and hanged an archbishop, five bishops, thirty six ecclesiastics, and hanged most of the Greek Cypriots inLarnaca and the other towns. In April 1822, Egyptian soldiers were sent to Cyprus to replace Ottomans and by September 1822, sixty-two Cypriot villages and hamlets had entirely disappeared.[17][18]
In 1869 theSuez Canal opened, and theUnited Kingdom showed increasing interest in the island, which is situated in what had suddenly become a very convenient location. When the Ottomans were defeated by the Russians in 1877 and theBerlin Congress took place the next year in order to revise theTreaty of San Stefano which was signed byRussia and the Ottoman Empire according to terms dictated by the former, it was officially announced on 9 July 1878 that on the 4th of preceding June, the British and the Sultan had secretly countersigned the Convention of Constantinople by virtue of which the possession and administration of Cyprus was vested in Great Britain. As exchange for control of Cyprus, the UK agreed to support theOttoman Empire in theRussian-Turkish War. This agreement was formalised as theCyprus Convention.
During the Ottoman era, numerous mosques,masjids, churches, public baths, bazaars,caravanserais,medreses, schools and libraries were built in Cyprus.[19] Ottoman architecture in Cyprus is closely linked to mainstreamOttoman architecture, however, there are some features that make it distinctly Cypriot. This stems from the fact that, whilst leaving Greek Orthodox churches intact, many buildings used by the Catholics, built inGothic architecture, were converted into mosques or palaces, such as theLala Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Famagusta andSelimiye Mosque in Nicosia. These buildings were later modified for use and thus synthesised with distinctly Ottoman elements. Gothic architecture also influenced Ottoman architecture in the island as Gothic elements were used by the Ottomans, such as in the minaret ofCami Kebir in Larnaca.[20]
The two surviving caravanserais are the monumentalBüyük Han andKumarcilar Han in Nicosia, considered to be some of the finest examples of Ottoman architecture in the island. The best known of the many libraries is theLibrary of Mahmud II.[21] Bazaars were very important parts of Ottoman commercial lives and in 1872, 23 bazaars were present in Nicosia alone, each with its own specialty.[22] In 1883,waqf reports published by the British authorities in Cyprus listed 81 mosques that belonged to theEvkaf Administration in Cyprus. This figure is believed to be a major underestimation by archaeologist Tuncer Bağışkan.[23] Two of the most prominent Muslim religious sites built in the Ottoman period areHala Sultan Tekke in Larnaca andArab Ahmet Mosque in Nicosia.
The Ottoman administration brought a significant improvement to Cyprus in terms of water supply. The most notable example of this is theBekir Pasha Aqueduct, built under the auspices ofEbubekir Pasha between 1746 and 1748. This aqueduct supplied fresh water toLarnaca and prior to its construction, local residents had to carry water on their backs for two hours.[24]Silihtar aqueduct, built between 1801 and 1803, and theArab Ahmet aqueduct supplied water to Nicosia.[25]
The authorities also encouraged the construction and improvement of artificial channels for water supply and irrigation, which greatly increased crop yield and allowed large-scale fruit production. Among villages described as prosperous due to artificial irrigation upon the British takeover of the island areMorphou,Lapithos,Polis,Lefka,Avdimou andKolossi.Samuel Baker, who visited Cyprus in 1879, noted "mills turned by water" and "narrow lanes streaming with water" in Lefka. He also wrote that "every garden and farm was irrigated by water conducted from the mountains in artificial channels" in the northern slopes of theKyrenia Mountains extending to theKarpas Peninsula. InKaravas, streams were diverted into artificial channels to supply water to the village.[26]
In the 19th century, a major effort was undertaken by a series of Ottoman governors to straighten and regulate the course of thePedieos. Edhem Pasha, who served as governor in the 1840s, completed the construction of the Larnaca-Nicosia road and several bridges. Governor Mehmet Halet in the 1850s further improved the road network and harbour of Larnaca and established a grain store and market in Nicosia to encourage cattle breeding.[27]
Notes
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