Otto III was crowned asKing of Germany in 983 at the age of three, shortly after his father's death inSouthern Italy while campaigning against theByzantine Empire and theEmirate of Sicily. Though the nominal ruler of Germany, Otto III's minor status ensured his variousregents held power over the Empire. His cousin DukeHenry II of Bavaria, initially claimed regency over the young king and attempted to seize the throne for himself in 984. When his rebellion failed to gain the support of Germany's aristocracy, Henry II was forced to abandon his claims to the throne and to allow Otto III's mother Theophanu to serve as regent until her death in 991. Otto III was then still a child, so his grandmother,Adelaide of Italy, served as regent until 994.
In 996, Otto III marched to Italy to claim the titles ofKing of Italy andHoly Roman Emperor, which had been left unclaimed since the death of Otto II in 983. Otto III also sought to reestablish Imperial control over the city of Rome, which had revolted under the leadership ofCrescentius II, and through it thepapacy. Crowned as Emperor, Otto III put down the Roman rebellion and installed his cousin asPope Gregory V, the first pope of German descent. After the Emperor had pardoned him and left the city, Crescentius II again rebelled, deposing Gregory V and installingJohn XVI as pope. Otto III returned to the city in 998, reinstalled Gregory V, and executed both Crescentius II and John XVI. When Gregory V died in 999, Otto III installedSylvester II as the new pope. Otto III's actions throughout his life further strengthened imperial control over theCatholic Church.
From the beginning of his reign, Otto III faced opposition from theSlavs along the eastern frontier. Following the death of his father in 983, theSlavs rebelled against imperial control, forcing the Empire to abandon its territories east of theElbe river. Otto III fought to regain the Empire's lost territories throughout his reign with only limited success. While in the east, Otto III strengthened the Empire's relations withPoland,Bohemia, andHungary. Through his affairs in Eastern Europe in 1000, he was able to extend the influence ofChristianity bysupporting mission work in Poland and through the crowning ofStephen I as the first Christian king of Hungary.
Returning to Rome in 1001, Otto faced a rebellion by the Roman aristocracy, which forced him to flee the city. While marching to reclaim the city in 1002, Otto suffered a sudden fever and died in Castle Paterno inFaleria at the age of 21. With no clear heir to succeed him, his early death threw the Empire into political crisis.
Otto was a charismatic figure associated with several legends and notable figures of his time. Opinions on Otto III and his reign vary considerably. Recognized in his own day as a brilliant, energetic, pious leader, Otto was portrayed by nineteenth century historians as a whimsical, overidealistic dreamer who failed in his duty towards Germany. Modern historians generally see him in a positive light, but several facets of the emperor remain enigmatic and debates on the true intentions behind his Imperial Renovation (renovatio imperii Romanorum) program continue.
Otto III was born in June or July 980 somewhere betweenAachen andNijmegen, in modern-dayNorth Rhine-Westphalia. The only son ofEmperor Otto II and EmpressTheophanu, Otto III was the youngest of the couple's four children. Immediately prior to Otto III's birth, his father had completed military campaigns inFrance against KingLothar.
On 14 July 982, Otto II's army suffered a crushing defeat against theMuslimEmirate of Sicily at theBattle of Stilo. Otto II had been campaigning inSouthern Italy with hopes of annexing the whole of Italy into theHoly Roman Empire. Otto II himself escaped the battle unharmed but many important imperial officials were among the battle's casualties. Following the defeat and at the insistence of the Empire's nobles, Otto II called an assembly of theImperial Diet inVerona atPentecost, 983, where he proposed to the assembly to have the three-year-old Otto IIIelected as king of Germany and Italy, becoming Otto II's undoubtedheir apparent. This was the first time a German ruler had been elected on Italian soil. After the assembly was concluded, Otto III traveled across the Alps in order to be crowned at Aachen, the traditional location of the coronation of the German kings. Otto II stayed behind to address military action against the Muslims. While still in central Italy, however, Otto II suddenly died on 7 December 983, and was buried inSt. Peter's Basilica inRome.
Otto III was crowned as king on Christmas Day 983, three weeks after his father's death, byWilligis, thearchbishop of Mainz, and byJohn X, thearchbishop of Ravenna.[1] News of Otto II's death first reached Germany shortly after his son's coronation.[1] The unresolved problems in southern Italy and theSlavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. With a minor on the throne, the Empire was thrown into confusion and Otto III's mother Theophanu assumed the role ofregent for her young son.[2]
Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, served as Otto III's regent from 983 to 984. Following a failed rebellion to claim the throne for himself, Henry II was forced to pass the regency to Otto III's motherTheophanu.
As regent, Henry II took actions aimed less at guardianship of his infant cousin and more at claiming the throne for himself. According toGerbert of Aurillac, Henry II adopted aByzantine-style joint-kingship. Towards the end of 984, Henry II sought to form alliances between himself and other important figures in the Ottonian world, chief among them his cousin KingLothar of France. In exchange for Lothar's agreement to make Henry II king of Germany, Henry II agreed to relinquishLotharingia to Lothar.[3] The two agreed to join their armies on 1 February 985, in order to take the city ofBreisach, but at the last minute, Henry's resolve weakened. Nevertheless, Lothair continued to campaign into German lands and succeeded in overrunning theVerdun by March 985.[4]
Those who opposed Henry II's claims fled toQuedlinburg in Saxony to conspire against him. When he became aware of this conspiracy, he moved his army towards Quedlinburg in hopes of crushing his opposition. Henry II sentFolcmar, theBishop of Utrecht, ahead of him in order to attempt a peace negotiation between him and the conspirators. The negotiations failed when the conspirators refused to swear allegiance to anyone other than Otto III, withBernard I, Duke of Saxony, maintaining allegiance to the child king. In response to his failure to gain control over Saxony, Henry II promised to hold future peace negotiations and then headed for theDuchy of Bavaria. With his long-standing familial ties in the region, many bishops and counts recognized him as the rightful heir to the throne.Henry III, Duke of Bavaria, who had been installed as Duke by Otto II, refused to recognize Henry II and remained loyal to Otto III.
With his successes and failures in Saxony and Bavaria, Henry II's claims depended on gaining support in theDuchy of Franconia, which was a direct possession of the German kings. The Franconian nobles, led byArchbishop Willigis of Mainz (thePrimate of Germany) andConrad I, Duke of Swabia, refused to abandon Otto III.[2] Fearing outright civil war, Henry II relinquished Otto III to the joint-regency of his mother and grandmother on 29 June 985.[3] In return for his submission, Henry II was restored as theDuke of Bavaria, replacingHenry III who became the newDuke of Carinthia.[5]
Otto III's motherTheophanu served as his regent from 984 until her death in 991.
The regency ofTheophanu, from 984 until her death in 991, was largely spared internal revolt. She struggled throughout to reinstate theDiocese of Merseburg, which her husband Otto II had absorbed into theArchdiocese of Magdeburg in 981. Theophanu also retained Otto II'scourt chaplains, in particular CountBernward of Hildesheim and Archbishop Willigis, who, as theArchbishop of Mainz, wasex officio the secularArchchancellor of Germany. Though Theophanu was regent, Willigis was given considerable leeway in administering the kingdom. One of the Empress's greatest achievements was her success in maintaining German supremacy overBohemia, asBoleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia, was forced to accept the authority of Otto III.[5]
In 986 the five-year-old Otto III celebratedEaster at Quedlinburg. The four major dukes of Germany (Henry II of Bavaria, Conrad I of Swabia, Henry III of Carinthia, and Bernard I of Saxony) also paid tribute to the child king. Imitating similar ceremonies carried out under Otto I in 936 and Otto II in 961, the dukes served Otto III as his ceremonialsteward,chamberlain,cupbearer, andmarshal, respectively. This service symbolized the loyalty of the dukes to Otto III and their willingness to serve him. Most significant was the submission of Henry II, who demonstrated his loyalty to his cousin despite his failed rebellion two years earlier. The next year, from the age of six onward, Otto III would receive education and training fromBernward of Hildesheim andGerbert d'Aurillac.
During the regency of Theophanu, theGreatGandersheim Conflict broke out, concerning control ofGandersheim Abbey and its estates. Both the Archbishop of Mainz and theBishop of Hildesheim claimed authority over the abbey, including the authority to anoint the abbey'snuns. The conflict began in 989 when Otto III's older sisterSophia became a nun in the abbey. Sophia refused to accept the authority of the Bishop of Hildesheim, instead recognizing only that of the Archbishop of Mainz. The conflict escalated until it was brought before the royal court of Otto III and Theophanu. The royal intervention eased the tensions between the parties by providing that both bishops would anoint Sophia, while anointing the remaining nuns of the abbey would be left to the Bishop of Hildesheim alone.
In 989 Theophanu and Otto III made a royal expedition to Italy to visit the grave of Otto II in Rome. After crossing the Alps and reachingPavia in northern Italy, the Empress had her longtime confidantJohn Philagathos appointed asArchbishop of Piacenza. After a year in Italy, the royal court returned to Germany, where Theophanu died inNijmegen on 15 June 991, at the age of 31. She was buried in theChurch of St. Pantaleon inCologne.
Because Otto III was still a child (only eleven when his mother died), his grandmother, the Dowager EmpressAdelaide of Italy, became regent, together with Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, until he became old enough to rule on his own in 994.[6]
As Otto III grew in age, the authority of his grandmother gradually waned until 994 when Otto III reached the age of 14. At an assembly of theImperial Diet held inSolingen in September 994, Otto III was granted the ability to fully govern the kingdom without the need of a regent. With this, Adelaide retired to a nunnery she had founded atSelz inAlsace. Although she never became a nun, she spent the rest of her days there in the service of the Church and in acts of charity. As Otto III was still unmarried, from 995 until 997 his older sisterSophia accompanied him and acted as his consort.
One of Otto III's first actions as an independent ruler was to appointHeribert of Cologne as hischancellor over Italy, a position he would hold until Otto's death in 1002. Otto III followed in his grandfather Otto I's footsteps in the beginning of his reign,[7] by appointing a new pope, Gregory V, and leaving Rome. Gregory V was expelled and Otto III returned to Rome in 998 where he stayed permanently until his death.[7] In the summer of 995, Otto sent the Archbishop of Piacenza, John Philagathos, toConstantinople as his representative to arrange a marriage between himself and aByzantine princess following the example of his father, Otto II, who solidified his claim to the throne by marrying the Byzantine Theophanu. For a while the discussions were aboutZoe Porphyrogenita.[clarification needed]
TheLutici federation ofWest SlavicPolabian tribes had remained quiet during the early years of Otto III's reign, even during Henry II's failed rebellion. In 983, following Otto II's defeat at thebattle of Stilo,the Slavs revolted against Imperial control, forcing the Empire to abandon its territories east of theElbe River in theNorthern March and theBillung March.[8] With the process of Christianization halted, the Slavs left the Empire in peace, and with Henry II's rebellion put down, Theophanu launched multiple campaigns to re-conquer the lost eastern territories, beginning in 985. Even though he was only six at the time, Otto III personally participated in these campaigns. During the expedition of 986 against the Slavs, Otto III received the homage ofDuke Mieszko I of Poland, who provided the Imperial army with military assistance and gave Otto III acamel.[5] Although the Lutici were subdued for a time in 987, they continued to occupy the young king's attention.
In September 991, when Otto III was eleven, Slavonic raiders captured the city ofBrandenburg. In 992 this invasion, as well as an incursion ofViking raiders, forced Otto III to lead his army against the invaders, and he suffered a crushing defeat in this campaign.[9]The next year, Germany suffered an outbreak of famine and pestilence. In 994 and 995, Otto III led fruitless campaigns against the northern Slavs and the Vikings,[9] but he did successfully re-conquer Brandenburg in 993, and in 995 he subdued theObotrite Slavs.[9]
In the fall of 995, after Otto III reached his majority, he again took to the field against theLutici, this time aided by the Polish DukeBolesław I the Brave.[10] Then in 997 he had to deal with a new Lutician attack onArneburg on the Elbe, which they managed to retake for a short while.[10]
Prior to his sudden death in December 983, Otto II had installed Pietro Canepanova as pope. Calling himselfPope John XIV, Canepanova was a non-Roman from Lombardy who had served as Otto II's chancellor in Italy. After Otto II's death, John XIV intervened in the dispute between Henry II of Bavaria and Theophanu over the regency, issuing an edict ordering Henry to turn Otto over to his mother.
During that turmoil, the Roman aristocracy saw an opportunity to remove the non-Roman John XIV and install a pope from among themselves. TheAntipope Boniface VII, who had spent nine years in exile in theByzantine Empire, joined forces with Byzantine nobles in southern Italy and marched on Rome in April 984 in order to claim the papal throne for himself. With the aid of the sons ofCrescentius the Elder —Crescentius II andJohn Crescentius — Boniface VII was able to imprison John XIV in theTomb of Hadrian. Four months later, on 20 August 984, John XIV died in his prison, either starved or poisoned, probably on the orders of Boniface.[11]
With Otto's regency seated in Germany, Crescentius II took the title ofPatricius Romanorum (Patrician of the Romans) and became the effective ruler of Rome, although he did not act entirely independently of central authority, presenting himself as a lieutenant of the king. When Boniface VII died in 985,Pope John XV waschosen to succeed him. Although the details of the election are unknown, it is likely that Crescentius II played a key role in the process. For a number of years, Crescentius II exercised authority over the city, severely limiting the autonomy of the pope in the process. When the Empress Theophanu was in Rome between 989 and 991, Crescentius II nominally subordinated himself to her, though he maintained his position as ruler of the city.[12]
After taking the crown in 994, Otto III faced first a Slavic rebellion, which he put down, and then an attempt by Crescentius II to seize power in Italy.
When Otto III turned his attention to Italy,[10] he not only intended to be crownedEmperor but also to come to the aid ofPope John XV, who had been forced to flee Rome. Otto set out for Italy fromRatisbon in March 996. InVerona, he became thepatron ofOtto Orseolo, the son ofVenetian DogePietro II Orseolo. He then pledged to support Otto Orseolo as the next Doge of Venice, leading to a period of good relations between theHoly Roman Empire and theRepublic of Venice after years of conflict under Otto II.
ReachingPavia forEaster, 996, Otto III was declaredKing of Italy and crowned with theIron Crown of the Lombards.[12] The king failed, however, to reach Rome before Pope John XV died offever.[13] While Otto III was in Pavia, Crescentius II, fearing the king's march on Rome, reconciled with Otto III and agreed to accept his nominee as pope.[12]
While inRavenna, Otto III nominated his cousin and court chaplain Bruno, who was then only twenty-three years old, and sent him to Rome with Archbishop Willigis to secure the city. In early May 996, Bruno wasconsecrated asGregory V, the first pope of German nationality.[12][14] Despite submitting to Otto III, Crescentius shut himself in his family's stronghold, theTomb of Hadrian, out of fear of retribution.[15]
The new supreme pontiff crowned Otto III as emperor on 21 May 996, in Rome atSt. Peter's Basilica. The Emperor and Pope then held asynod at St. Peter's on 25 May to serve as the Empire'shighest judicial court. The Roman nobles who had rebelled against Pope John XV were summoned before the synod to give an account of their actions. A number of the rebels, including Crescentius II, werebanished for their crimes. Pope Gregory V, however, wished to inaugurate his papal reign with acts of mercy and pleaded for clemency from the Emperor, who issuedpardons to those he convicted. In particular, while Crescentius II was pardoned by Otto III, he was deprived of his title ofPatricius but was permitted to live out his life in retirement at Rome.[16]
Following the synod, Otto III appointed Gerbert of Aurillac, theArchbishop of Reims, to be his tutor.[10] Counseled by Gerbert and BishopAdalbert of Prague,[17] Otto III set out to reorganize the Empire. Influenced by the ruin ofancient Rome and perhaps by his Byzantine mother,[16] Otto III dreamed of restoring the glory and power of theRoman Empire, with himself at the head of atheocratic state.[10] He also introduced some Byzantine court customs.[18] To shore up his power in Italy, Otto III sought the support of existing Italian religious communities. For instance, he granted royal immunity to the Abbey of San Salvatore, a rich monastery along the shores of theLago di Bientina in Tuscany.
Through the election of Gregory V, Otto III exercised greater control over the Church than his grandfatherOtto I had decades earlier. The Emperor quickly demonstrated his intention to withdraw Imperial support for the privileges of theHoly See laid out by Otto I. Under theDiploma Ottonianum issued by Otto I, the Emperor could only veto papal candidates. Otto III, however, had nominated and successfully installed his own candidate. The Emperor also refused to acknowledge theDonation of Constantine, which Otto III declared a forgery.[18] Under a decree supposedly issued byRoman EmperorConstantine the Great, the Pope was grantedsecular authority overwestern Europe. These actions resulted in increased tensions between the Roman nobility and the Church, who had traditionally reserved the right to name the pope from among their own members.[18]
After his coronation, Otto III returned to Germany in December 996, staying along theLower Rhine (especially inAachen) until April 997. His specific activities during this time are not known. In summer 997, Otto III campaigned against the Elbe Slavs in order to secure Saxony's eastern border.
TheTomb of Hadrian, stronghold of theCrescentii family, was besieged by Otto III in 998. Otto III's soldiers breached the stronghold and executed the rebelliousCrescentius II.
When Otto III left Italy for Germany, the situation in Rome remained uncertain. In September 996, a few months after receiving a pardon from Otto III, Crescentius II met with the Archbishop of Piacenza, John Philagathos, a former adviser to the late Empress Theophanu, to devise a plan to depose the newly installed Pope Gregory V. In 997, with the active support of Byzantine EmperorBasil II, Crescentius II led a revolt against Gregory V, deposed him, and installed John Philagathos asPope John XVI, anantipope, in April 997.[19] Gregory fled to Pavia in northern Italy, held a synod, andexcommunicated John. The new bishop of Piacenza,Siegfried, came north to meet Otto atEschwege in July.[20] Otto detached the city from thecounty of Piacenza and granted it to the bishop in perpetuity.[21]
Putting down the Slavic forces in eastern Saxony, Otto III began his second expedition into Italy in December 997. Accompanied by his sister Sophia into Italy, Otto III named his auntMatilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg, as his regent in Germany,[22] becoming the first non-duke or bishop to serve in that capacity. Otto III peacefully retook Rome in February 998 when the Roman aristocracy agreed to a peace settlement. With Otto III in control of the city, Gregory V was reinstated as pope.[23] John XVI fled, but the Emperor's troops pursued and captured him, cut off his nose and ears, cut out his tongue, broke his fingers, blinded him, and then brought him before Otto III and Gregory V for judgement. At the intercession ofSaint Nilus the Younger, one of his countrymen, Otto III spared John XVI's life and sent him to a monastery in Germany, where he would die in 1001.
Crescentius II retreated again to the Tomb of Hadrian, the traditional stronghold of theCrescentii, and was then besieged by Otto III's imperial army. Towards the end of April, the stronghold was breached, and Crescentius II was taken prisoner and executed bydecapitation. His body was put on public display atMonte Mario.
Otto III made Rome the administrative capital of his Empire and revived elaborate Roman customs and Byzantine court ceremonies. During his time in Italy, the Emperor and the Pope attempted to reform the Church, and confiscated church property was returned to the respective religious institutions. Additionally, after the death of theBishop of Halberstadt in November 996, who had been one of the masterminds behind the abolition of thebishopric of Merseburg, Otto III and Pope Gregory V began the process of reviving the Diocese. Otto I had established the Diocese in 968 following hisvictory over the Hungarians in order to Christianize the Polabian Slavs but it had been effectively destroyed in 983 with theGreat Slav Rising following the death of Otto II that year.
Otto III arranged for his imperial palace to be built on thePalatine Hill[18] and planned to restore the ancientRoman Senate to its position of prominence.[citation needed] He revived the city's ancient governmental system, including appointing aCity Patrician, aCity Prefect, and a body of judges whom he commanded to recognize onlyRoman law.[24] In order to strengthen his title to the Roman Empire and to announce his position as the protector ofChristendom, Otto III took for himself the titles "the Servant ofJesus Christ", "the Servant of theApostles",[18] "Consul of the Senate and People of Rome", and "Emperor of the World".[citation needed]
Between 998 and 1000, Otto III made severalpilgrimages. In 999, he made a pilgrimage fromGargano toBenevento, where he met with the hermit monkRomuald and the AbbotNilus the Younger (at that time a highly venerated religious figure) in order toatone for executing Crescentius II after promising his safety.[23] During this particular pilgrimage, his cousin Pope Gregory V died in Rome after a brief illness. Upon learning of Gregory V's death, Otto III installed his long-time tutor Gerbert of Aurillac asPope Sylvester II.[23] The use of this papal name was not without cause: it recalled the firstpope of this name, who had allegedly created the "Christian Empire" together with Emperor Constantine the Great.[10] This was part of Otto III's campaign to further link himself with both the Roman Empire and the Church.
Like his grandfather before him, Otto III strongly aspired to be the successor ofCharlemagne. In 1000, he visited Charlemagne's tomb inAachen, removingrelics from it and transporting them to Rome.[citation needed] Otto III also carried back parts of the body of Bishop Adalbert of Prague, which he placed in the church ofSan Bartolomeo all'Isola he had built on theTiber Island in Rome. Otto III also added the skin ofSaint Bartholomew to the relics housed there.
Poland during the reign ofMieszko I.Monument of the meeting of Emperor Otto III with the Polish ruler Bolesław the Brave in Ilva (nowSzprotawa in Poland) in 1000.
Around 960, thePolishPiast dynasty underMieszko I had extended theDuchy of Poland beyond theOder River in an effort to conquer thePolabian Slavs, who lived along the Elbe River. This brought the Poles into conflict with Otto I'sKingdom of Germany, who also desired to conquer the Polabian Slavs. Otto I sent his trusted lieutenant, the SaxonMargraveGero, to address the Polish threat, while Otto I traveled to Italy to be crowned as emperor. The sides agreed in a resolution of the conflict in 963 that Mieszko would pledge fealty to Otto I.[25] In return, Otto I granted Mieszko I the title ofamicus imperatoris ("Friend of the Emperor") and acknowledged his position asdux Poloniae ("Duke of Poland"). Mieszko I is thus recognized as the founder of the independent Polish state and the first ruler of Poland, and his son, Boleslaus I, was the first to be crowned King of Poland.
Mieszko I remained a powerful ally of Otto I for the remainder of his life. Although he was a pagan, in 965 he married the ChristianDobrawa, daughter ofBoleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia. He thenconverted to Christianity in 966, bringing Poland closer to the Christian states of Bohemia and the Empire. Dobrawa died in 977, and Mieszko I then strengthened his alliance with the Empire by marryingOda, the daughter of the Saxon Margrave Dietrich of Haldensleben in 978, and by marrying his sonBolesłaus I of Poland to a daughter of MargraveRikdag of Meissen.
Following the death of Otto I in 973, Mieszko I sided with Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, against Otto II duringHenry's failed revolt in 977. After the revolt was put down, Mieszko I swore loyalty to Otto II.[26] When Otto II died suddenly in 983 and was succeeded by the three-year old Otto III, Mieszko I again supported Henry II in his bid for the German throne.[3] When Henry's revolt failed, Mieszko I swore loyalty to Otto III. As such, the question of Mieszko's loyalty and alliance was complicated.
Mieszko I's son Bolesław I succeeded him as Duke in 992, and Poland continued its fraught alliance with the Empire, no longer paying tribute. Polish forces joined the Empire's campaigns to put down theGreat Slav Rising, led by the Polabian Lutici tribes during the 980s and 990s. Immediately after Otto III's death on the other hand, Bolesław the Brave would go on to defeat Otto's successor, the emperor Henry II, in thePolish-German wars of 1003-1018, securing full sovereignty from the Empire and even forcing the emperor to aid Bolesław'sinvasion of the Kievan Rus.
Germany and theDuchy of Bohemia came into significant contact with one another in 929, when German KingHenry I had invaded the Duchy to forceDuke Wenceslaus I to pay regular tribute to Germany. When Wenceslaus I was assassinated in 935, his brother Boleslaus I succeeded him as Duke and refused to continue paying the annual tribute to Germany. This action caused Henry I's son and successor Otto I to launch an invasion of Bohemia. Following the initial invasion, the conflict deteriorated into a series of border raids that lasted until 950 when Otto I and Boleslaus I signed a peace treaty. Boleslaus I agreed to resume paying tribute and to recognize Otto I as his overlord. The Duchy was then incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire as a constituent state.
Bohemia would be a major factor in the many battles along the Empire's eastern border. Boleslaus I helped Otto I crush an uprising of Slavs along the Lower Elbe in 953, and they joined forces again to defeat the Hungarians at thebattle of Lechfeld in 955. In 973 Otto I established thebishopric of Prague, subordinated to the archbishopric of Mainz, in order toChristianize the Czech territory. To strengthen the Bohemian-Polish alliance, Boleslaus I's daughter Dobrawa was married to the pagan Mieszko I of Poland in 965. The marriage helped bring Christianity to Poland. He died in 972 and was succeeded as Duke by his oldest sonBoleslaus II.
After initially siding with Henry II against Otto II during Henry's failed revolt in 977, Boleslaus II swore loyalty to Otto II.[27] When Otto II died suddenly in 983 and was succeeded by the three-year old Otto III, Boleslaus II again supported Henry II in his bid for the German throne.[3] As in 977, Henry's bid failed, and Boleslaus II swore loyalty to Otto III.
Otto I's defeat of the Hungarians at Lechfeld in 955 ended the decades-longHungarian invasions of Europe. TheHungarian Grand PrinceFajsz was deposed following the defeat and was succeeded byTaksony, who adopted the policy of isolation from the West. He was succeeded by his sonGéza in 972, who sent envoys to Otto I in 973.[28] Géza was baptised in 972, and Christianity spread among the Hungarians during his reign.[29]
Géza expanded his rule over the territories west of theDanube and theGaram, but significant parts of theCarpathian Basin still remained under the rule of local tribal leaders.[30] In 997, Géza died and was succeeded byStephen (originally called Vajk). Stephen was baptized by Bishop Adalbert of Prague and marriedGisela, daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, sister of Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor, as well as a distant niece of Otto III.[31] Stephen had to face the rebellion of his relative,Koppány, who claimed Géza's inheritance based on the Hungarian tradition ofagnatic seniority.[32] Stephen defeated Koppány using some Western tactics and a small number of Swabian knights.
When Otto III traveled to Poland in 1000, he brought with him acrown from Pope Sylvester II. With Otto III's approval, Stephen was crowned as the first Christianking of Hungary onChristmas Day, 1000.[33]
In 996, Duke Bolesław I of Poland sent the longtime Bishop of Prague, Adalbert, to Christianize theOld Prussians. He wasmartyred by the Prussians for his efforts in 997.[34] Bolesław I, who had bought Adalbert's body from the Old Prussians for its weight in gold, had Adalbert laid to rest in the cathedral atGniezno, which eventually became the ecclesiastical center of Poland. Otto III and Bolesław I worked together tocanonize Adalbert, making him the first Slavic bishop to become a saint.[35] In December 999, Otto III left Italy to make a pilgrimage from Rome toGniezno in Poland to pray at the grave of Adalbert.[35]
Otto III's pilgrimage allowed the Emperor to extend the influence of Christianity in Eastern Europe and to strengthen relations with Poland and Hungary by naming themfederati ("allies").[36] On the pilgrimage to Gniezno, the Emperor was received by Bolesław I at the Polish border on theBobr River nearMałomice. Between 7 and 15 March 1000, Otto III invested Bolesław I with the titlesfrater et cooperator Imperii ("Brother and Partner of the Empire") andpopuli Romani amicus et socius ("Friend and ally of Rome").[36] Otto III gave Bolesław a replica of hisHoly Lance (part of theImperial Regalia) and Bolesław presented the Emperor with arelic, an arm of Saint Adalbert in exchange.
Bolesław I subsequently accompanied Otto III on his way back to Germany. Both proceeded to the grave of Charlemagne atAachen Cathedral, whereBolesław received Charlemagne's throne as a gift[citation needed]. Both arranged the betrothal of Bolesław's sonMieszko II Lambert with the Emperor's nieceRicheza of Lotharingia.
Italy around 1000, shortly before Otto III's death in 1002
The Emperor spent the remainder of 1000 in Italy without any notable activities. In 1001, the people of the Italian city ofTibur revolted against Imperial authority. Otto III besieged the city and put down the revolt with ease, sparing its inhabitants. This action angered the people of Rome, who viewed Tibur as a rival and wanted the city destroyed.[37] In a change of policy towards the papacy, Otto III bestowed the governance of the city upon Pope Sylvester II as part of thePapal States but under the overlordship of the Holy Roman Empire. Previously, Otto III had revoked the Pope's rights as secular ruler by denying theDonation of Constantine and by amending theDiploma Ottonianum.
In the weeks after Otto's actions at Tibur, the Roman people rebelled against their Emperor, led byCount Gregory I of Tusculum. The rebellious citizens besieged the Emperor in his palace on the Palatine Hill and drove him from the city.[23] Accompanied by Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim and the German chroniclerThangmar, he returned to the city to conduct peace negotiations with the rebellious Romans. Though both sides agreed to a peaceful settlement, with the Romans respecting Otto's rule over the city, feelings of mistrust remained. The Emperor's advisors urged him to wait outside the city until military reinforcements could arrive to ensure his safety.
Emperor Otto, accompanied by Pope Sylvester II, traveled to Ravenna to dopenance in the monastery ofSant'Apollinare in Classe and to summon his army. While in Ravenna, he received ambassadors fromDuke Bolesław I of Poland and approved the plans ofKing Stephen of Hungary to establish theArchdiocese of Esztergom in order to convert Hungary to Christianity. The Emperor also strengthened relations with the Venetian Doge,Pietro II Orseolo. Since 996, Otto had beengodfather to Pietro II's son, Otto Orseolo, and in 1001 he arranged for Pietro II's daughter to bebaptized.
After summoning his army in late 1001, Otto headed south to Rome to ensure his rule over the city. During the travel south, however, he suffered a sudden and severe fever. He died in a castle nearCivita Castellana on 24 January 1002.[38] He was 21 years old and had reigned as an independent ruler for just under six years, having nominally reigned for nearly nineteen. The Byzantine princessZoe, second daughter of the EmperorConstantine VIII, had just disembarked inApulia on her way to marry him.[39] Otto III's death has been attributed to various causes. Medieval sources speak ofmalaria, which he had caught in the unhealthy marshes that surrounded Ravenna.[23] Following his death, the Roman people suggested that Stefania, the widow of Crescentius II, had made Otto fall in love with her and then poisoned him.[citation needed]
The Emperor's body was carried back to Germany by his soldiers, as his route was lined with Italians who hurled abuses at his remains.[33] He was buried in Aachen Cathedral alongside the body of Charlemagne.[40]
Otto III, having never married, died without issue, leaving the Empire without a clear successor.[41] As thefuneral procession moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002,[citation needed] Otto III's cousin dukeHenry IV of Bavaria (son ofHenry the Quarrelsome, representing the Bavarian-Liudolfing line) asked the bishops and nobles to elect him as the new king of Germany.[41] With the exception of theBishop of Augsburg[citation needed] andWilligis (Archbishop andElector of Mainz),[41] Henry II received no support for his claims.[citation needed] To emphasise Henry's claim to the throne the Bishop of Augsburg even buried Otto's intestines in the Cathedral of Augsburg in order to show that Henry cared for the well-being of Otto's body.[citation needed] At Otto III's funeral on Easter 1002, in Aachen, the German nobles repeated their opposition to Henry II.[citation needed] Several rival candidates for the throne –Count Ezzo of Lotharingia,[citation needed]Margrave Eckard I of Meissen,[41] andDuke Herman II of Swabia (a Conradine)[41] — strongly contested the succession of Henry II.[41] On 6 or 7 June 1002 in Mainz, the duke of Bavaria was elected King of the Romans as Henry II by his Bavarian, Frankish and upper Lotharingian supporters, and anointed and crowned king by Willigis.[41] In the meantime, Ekkehard had already been killed in a feud unconnected to the succession dispute.[41] Henry then launched an indecisive campaign against Herman of Swabia, but was recognised by the Thuringians, Saxons and lower Lotharingians in subsequent months, either by homage or renewed election.[42] On 1 October 1002 in Bruchsal, Herman finally submitted to Henry II, and the war of succession was over.[43]
Otto's mental gifts were considerable, and were carefully cultivated by Bernward, later bishop of Hildesheim, and Gerbert of Aurillac, archbishop of Reims.[6] He spoke three languages and was so learned that contemporaries called himmirabilia mundi or "the wonder of the world" (later,Frederick II would often be referred to asstupor mundi, also translated into English as "the wonder of the world".[22] The two emperors are often compared on account of their intellectual power, ambitions and connection to the Italian culture).[44] Enamoured as he was of Greek and Roman culture, a speech was attributed to him inThangmar's Vita Bernwardi saying he preferred Romans to his German subjects though the speech's authenticity is disputed.[45]
Between 1012 and 1018Thietmar of Merseburg wrote aChronicon, orChronicle, of eight books dealing with the period between 908 and 1018. For the earlier part he usedWidukind'sRes gestae Saxonicae, theAnnales Quedlinburgenses and other sources; the latter part is the result of personal knowledge. The chronicle is nevertheless an excellent authority for the history of Saxony during the reigns of the emperors Otto III and Henry II. No kind of information is excluded, but the fullest details refer to the bishopric of Merseburg and to the wars against theWends and thePoles.
Otto III was a member of theOttonian dynasty of kings and emperors who ruled the Holy Roman Empire (previously Germany) from 919 to 1024. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Otto III was the great-grandson of Henry the Fowler, grandson of Otto I, son of Otto II, and a second-cousin to Henry II.
Otto III never married and never fathered any children due to his early death. At the time of his death, the Byzantine princessZoë Porphyrogenita, second daughter of EmperorConstantine VIII, was traveling to Italy to marry him.[39]
^Althoff, Gerd (2003).Otto III(PDF). Published by The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 124–125.ISBN0271022329.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved20 July 2022.
Kristó, Gyula; Makk, Ferenc (1996).Az Árpád-ház uralkodói("Rulers of the Árpád dynasty"). I.P.C. KÖNYVEK Kft.ISBN963-7930-97-3.
Longhena, Mario; Levi Spinazzola, Alda; Pettorelli, Arturo; Parigi, Luigi; De Marinis, Tammaro; Carotti, Natale (1935)."Piacenza".Enciclopedia Italiana. Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.
Moehs, Teta E. (1972).Gregorius V, 996–999: A Biographical Study. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann.
Müller-Mertens, Eckhard; et al. (The New Cambridge Medieval History) (1995). "The Ottonians as kings and emperors". In Timothy Reuter (ed.).c.900–c.102. Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-36447-8. Retrieved25 August 2022.
.jpg)
2.JPG)
.jpg)
