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Ostsiedlung (German pronunciation:[ˈɔstˌziːdlʊŋ]ⓘ,lit. 'East settlement') is the term for theearly medieval andhigh medieval migration ofGermanic peoples andGermanization of the areas populated bySlavic,Baltic andUralic peoples; the most settled area is sometimes known today asGermania Slavica. Germanization efforts included eastern parts ofFrancia,East Francia, and theHoly Roman Empire and beyond; and the consequences for settlement development and social structures in the areas of settlement. Other regions were also settled, though not as heavily. TheOstsiedlung encompassed multiple modern and historical regions, primarily Germany east of theSaale andElbe rivers, the states ofLower Austria andStyria in Austria, Poland and theCzech Republic, but also in other parts ofCentral and Eastern Europe.[1][2]
The majority ofOstsiedlung settlers settled individually at various stages. Many settlers were encouraged and invited by the local princes and regional lords,[3][4][5] who sometimes even expelled part of the indigenous populations to make room for German settlers.[a]
Smaller groups of migrants first moved to the east during the early Middle Ages. Larger treks of settlers, which included scholars, monks, missionaries, craftsmen and artisans, often invited, in numbers unverifiable, first moved eastwards during the mid-12th century. The military territorial conquests and punitive expeditions of theOttonian andSalian emperors during the 11th and 12th centuries do not form part of theOstsiedlung, as these actions did not result in noteworthy settlement establishment east of the Elbe and Saale rivers. TheOstsiedlung is considered to have been a purely Medieval event as it ended in the beginning of the 14th century. The legal, cultural, linguistic, religious and economic changes caused by the movement had a profound influence on the history of Eastern Central Europe between theBaltic Sea and theCarpathians until the 20th century.[7][8][9]
In the 20th century, accounts of theOstsiedlung were heavily exploited byGerman nationalists (including theNazi movement)[10] to press the territorial claims of Germany and to demonstrate supposed German superiority over non-Germanic peoples, whose cultural, urban and scientific achievements in that era were undermined, rejected, or presented as German.[11][failed verification][12][13] AfterWorld War I (1914–1918), the fact thatGermany andAustria lost part of their territories in the East appeared as a counterpoint toOstsiedlung because some of the Germans in the East became foreign citizens when their homes were no longer part of Germany and Austria. The Germans in the East outside Germany and Austria were partially forced to leave and the regions that Germany and Austria lost in the East were dominated by non-German peoples, so the German loss here was not as severe as afterWorld War II.
In and after World War II (1944–1950),Germans were driven out and deported to rump Germany from the East and their language and culture were lost in most areas (including theGerman-dominated lands which Germany lost after this war) in which German people had settled during the Ostsiedlung; except part of Eastern Austria and especially Eastern Germany.
During the 4th and 5th centuries, in what is known as theMigration Period, Germanic peoples seized control of the decayingWestern Roman Empire in the South and established new kingdoms within it. Meanwhile, formerly Germanic areas inEastern Europe and present-day Eastern Germany, were settled bySlavs.[14]
Charlemagne, ruler of theCarolingian Empire ofFrancia, which was founded byFranks (aGermanic people), under whom most of Western and Central continental Europe had been united during the 8th and 9th centuries, created numerous border territories, so calledmarches (German:Marken), where a substantial portion of theOstsiedlung would later take place.[15][16] The territories (from north to south):
This was the earliest recorded and planned "eastern policy" under Charlemagne, who wanted to protect the eastern border of the Frankish Empire, and also wanted to solidify his position in the east by declaring war on theObotrites andWilzes in the North, as well as on theSorbs (east of Thuringia) and Czech tribal princes. However, since the goal wasn't to establish an ethnic and linguistic boundary between theSlavs andGermanic tribes, Slavic settlement continued inThuringia and Northern Bavaria, with individual Slavs even making it to theRhine Basin.[19]
The tribes that populated these marches were generally unreliable allies of the Empire, and successor kings led numerous, yet not always successful, military campaigns to maintain their authority.
In 843, theCarolingian Empire was partitioned into three independent kingdoms as a result of dissent among Charlemagne's three grandsons over the continuation of the custom ofpartible inheritance or the introduction ofprimogeniture.[20]
Louis the German inherited the eastern territories,East Francia, that included all lands east of the Rhine river and to the north of Italy, which roughly corresponded with the territories of the Germanstem duchies, that formed a federation under the first kingHenry the Fowler (919 to 936).[21] The Slavs living within the reach ofEast Francia (since 962 C.E. the Holy Roman Empire), collectively calledWends or "Elbe Slavs", seldom formed larger political entities. They rather constituted various small tribes, settling as far west as to a line from the EasternAlps andBohemia to the Saale andElbe rivers. As the East Frankish kingdom expanded, various Wendish tribes, that were conquered or allied with the Eastern Franks, such as the Obotrites, aided the Franks in defeating the West GermanicSaxons.[22] The Carolingian tradition of setting upmarches at the periphery of the empire would be continued by the East Frankish and Holy Roman Empire's kings during the 11th and 12th centuries.
Under the rule of KingLouis the German andArnulf of Carinthia, the first groups of civilianCatholic settlers were led byFranks andBavarii to the lands ofPannonia (present-dayBurgenland,Hungary,Slovakia andSlovenia).
In a series of punitive actions, large territories in the northeast between theElbe, Saale,Naab rivers in the west and theOder,Bober,Kwisa andVltava rivers in the east were conquered (see also:Battle on the Raxa), and bordermarches were established in these areas. Fortifications were occupied and new castles built, reinforced by military units to exert military control and collect tributes. Christianization was limited to the establishment of mission dioceses such asLübeck,Brandenburg orHavelberg. The development of aparish church system only took place after the settlement of German colonists, beginning in the 2nd half of the 12th century. Control over areas that had already been conquered was repeatedly lost. The Slavic revolt of 983 and an uprising of the Obotrites in 1066 had particularly serious consequences.[23][24]
In 983, thePolabian Slavs in theBillung andNorthern Marches, stretching from the Elbe river to the Baltic Sea succeeded in a rebellion against the political rule and Christian mission of the recently establishedHoly Roman Empire. In spite of their new-won independence, the Obotrites,Rani,Liutizian andHevelli tribes were soon faced with internal struggles and warfare as well as raids from the newly constituted and expandingPiast dynasty (the earlyPolish) state from the east,Denmark from the north and the Empire from the west, eager to reestablish her marches. The area remained under rule of the Polabian tribes and uncolonized and unchristianized into the 12th century.[25][26]
The territories (from north to south):
TheSorbian March east of theSaale river was established in the 9th century. KingOtto I designated a larger area – the Saxon Eastern March – in 937, that encompassed the territory between theElbe, theOder and thePeene rivers. Governed by MargraveGero, it is also referred to asMarca Geronis. After Gero's death in 965, the march was divided in smaller sectors: Northern March,Lusatian March,Margraviate of Meissen, andMarch of Zeitz. The march was populated by variousWest Slavic tribes, the largest beingPolabian Slavs tribes in the north andSorbian tribes in the south.
TheMargravate of Meissen andTransylvania were populated by German settlers, beginning in the 12th century. From the end of the 12th century onwards, monasteries and cities were established in Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and eastern Austria. In the Baltics, theTeutonic Order founded acrusader state in the beginning of the 13th century.[27][9]
A call for a crusade against the Wends in 1108, probably coming from aFlemish clerk in the circles of thearchbishop of Magdeburg, which included the prospect of profitable land gains for new settlers, had no noticeable effect and resulted in neither a military campaign nor a movement of settlers into the area.[28][29]
Although the first settlers had already arrived in 1124, being mostly ofFlemish andDutch origin, they settled south of theEider river, followed by the conquest of the land of theWagri in 1139, the founding ofLübeck in 1143 and the call byCount Adolf II of Schauenburg to settle in EasternHolstein, and Pomerania in the same year.[30][31]
Weakened by ongoing internal conflicts and constant warfare, the independent Wendish territories finally lost the capacity to provide effective military resistance. From 1119 to 1123,Pomerania invaded and subdued the northeastern parts of theLutici lands. According to Kantzow, in 1124 and 1128,Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania, at that time a vassal of Poland, invited bishopOtto of Bamberg to Christianize the Pomeranians and Liutizians of his duchy.[32][33] In 1147, as a campaign of theNorthern Crusades, the Wendish Crusade was mounted in theDuchy of Saxony to retake the marches lost in 983. The crusaders also headed for PomeranianDemmin andSzczecin, despite these areas having already been successfully Christianized. The Crusade caused widespread devastation and slaughter.[34]
This created ideal conditions for German settlement, some of the most prominent supporters of settlement includedWilliam IV who had purchased small amounts of land on the frontier of Pomerania, andWichmann von Seeburg. In 1152 the large numbers ofFlemish andDutch people were introduced to the unoccupied and uncultivatedmarshlands just east ofMagdeburg near theHavel. They founded the cities ofFläming andJüterbog.Henry the Lion also settled Mecklenburg with a large number of Flemish people. With the formation of theHanseatic League, which allowed further German settlement in coastal towns due to it being the dominant trade republic in theBaltic andNorth seas.[35]
After the Wendish crusade,Albert the Bear was able to establish and expand theMargraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 on approximately the territory of the former Northern March, which since 983 had been controlled by theHevelli and Lutici tribes. TheBishopric of Havelberg, that had been occupied by revolting Lutici tribes was reestablished to Christianize the Wends.[36]
In 1164, after Saxon dukeHenry the Lion finally defeated rebellious Obotrites and Pomeranian dukes in theBattle of Verchen. ThePomeranian duchies of Demmin and Stettin became Saxon fiefs, as well as the Obodrite territories, which becameMecklenburg, named after the Obotrites residential capital,Mecklenburg Castle. After Henry the Lion lost his internal struggle with EmperorFrederick I, Mecklenburg and Pomerania became fiefs of theHoly Roman Empire in 1181,[37] although the latter briefly as it passed under Danish suzerainty in 1185, and then under Imperial again only in the 13th century.
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German influence in Bohemia began when DukeSpytihněv I freed himself from Moravian vassalage and instead paid homage to theEast Frankish KingArnulf of Carinthia at theImperial Diet (Reichstag) inRegensburg in 895.[38] In 973, when theBishopric of Prague was created, it was made subject to theArchbishopric of Mainz, which increased German influence. In the 11th century,Bretislav I led a campaign against Poland, reconquering Silesia[39] and transferring the relics ofSaint Adalbert to Prague, hoping to have Prague elevated to archbishopric status. This resulted in a military conflict with the German KingHenry III, and in the end, Bretislav had to renounce his conquests in Poland and recognize Henry as his sovereign.[40] After this, Bohemia remained loyal to Germany because of fears of another invasion, and Polish and Hungarian expansionism to the North and South[citation needed]. On the epoch of thewar of investiture in Germany,Henry IV decisively fixed German-Bohemian relationship by playing off the Polish-Bohemian enmity. In 1080 Vratislav II, fighting under the banner of the Emperor, captured the golden lance of the papal counter-king,Rudolf of Swabia, at thebattle of Flarchheim[citation needed]. Bohemia's reward for this loyalty came six years later, in 1086, when Henry IV elevated the Duke to the rank of king.[41]
All of this laid the perfect conditions for German settlement and dominance of Bohemia[citation needed]. German settlers, mainly traders, miners, farmers and monks settled the country. The trade fairs of Prague attracted many merchants from all over Europe, with many including the Germans settling in Prague, and even making up almost a quarter of all people in Prague[citation needed]. Bretislav II granted them important privileges, notably the right of self-government under magistrates of their own election, and the right of living under German law.[41] During the late12th and early13th century, German settlement of the mountainous borderland (known as theSudetenland) began[citation needed]. It was caused by the successful settlement of modern-dayNortheastern Germany. The mountainous area settled first was theEger Valley, partially due to its southern edges coming under the control ofDiepold III who was an ally of Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossa. Furthermore, theMonastery of Waldsassen owned extensive land in the Eger Valley. The first German villages were Penerit and Neudorf, both founded in 1196.Bavarians andAustrians settled the southern edge,East Franks the middle edge, andSaxon miners the northern edge, notably theErzgebirge. Unlike inMecklenburg,Pomerania,Brandenburg, andSilesia, the German settlement was not as heavy, nor were many Czechs assimilated like in Eastern Germany. As German influence grew, with greater numbers of Settlers arriving each year,Soběslav II felt it was necessary to protect the Czechs from Germany, askingHenry II, Duke of Austria to renounce his claims to certain Bohemian lands, this was refused, and in the war that followed he was defeated. This made Soběslavs successorsFrederick andConrad II ruling during a period of unrest. This allowed for greater settlement during the 13th century, where even many Czech towns received so many German settlers they were practically Germanized and became majority German.[42] Due to the German influence on the nobility, many castles and villages names were Germanized, such asZvíkov Castle toBurg Klingenberg. Under the reign ofVladislaus II, various military orders, the most prominent of which, theKnights Hospitaller, were even allowed to bring German settlers into Bohemian land and settle them[citation needed]. During this time, German settlers were exempt from the localŽupan Laws, which included various duties such as the upkeep of local infrastructure. In 1219,Litoměřice (German:Leitmeritz), was the first German town to be given the privileges of theMagdeburg Laws in Bohemia.[43] During the 13th–14th century, as much as 1 out of every 6th German settlers was going to Bohemia, while this is lower than inUpper Saxony, Lusatia, andLower Silesia, It's still a substantial number.[44]
Eventually, during the late 14th and early 15th centuries' settlement slowed down, due to numerous factors such as theBlack Plague in Germany, and theHussite Wars.[45]
The Teutonic State was formed in the aftermath of theLivonian Crusade,Prussian Crusade and in general theNorthern Crusades in the territories ofPrussia,Pomerelia andLivonia. It was established on February 2, 1207[46] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[47] and proclaimed byPope Innocent III in 1215 as a subject to theHoly See.[48]
The Teutonic State established a comprehensive administrative structure, and modernized the old traditional tribal structure of the region. An integral part of the Order other than convertingPagans toChristianity was also to encourage Germans to settle the sparsely populated area. Most German settlers primarily went to urban cities, such asGraudenz (Grudziądz),Elbing (Elbląg), andRiga.[49][50] The settlers also established numerous rural settlements, known asVorwerke in German. Most of the settlers came from theRhineland region. The Teutonic Order established numerous castles and other holdings near populated places such asKönigsberg to consolidate the conquered lands. While East Prussia was heavily settled and Germanized, Livonia still had a very small German population, because there were no attempts to settle inland. The Germans in Livonia were mainly employees of the Teutonic Order there for administrative purposes, or merchants of the Hanseatic League who settled coastal towns.[51]
While Hungary was never conquered by the Holy Roman Empire and was never in focus of German settlement, it still had a sizable German population. During the 11th century,Stephen I of Hungary invited Germanpriests,abbots, and churchmen to found monasteries and promote the conversion of Hungary. Eventually these Germans' descendants started to fill other occupations, becomingmerchants,clerks, andfarmers, etc. and were granted the status of free peasants. In 1149,Géza II invited German settlers to Southern Transylvania. Written records call them "Flamands", "Teutons", and "Latins". The term "Saxons" appeared in 1206, and became the official term for local Germans in 1231. The term represented legal status rather than nationality. TheTransylvanian Saxons have diverse origins, their pottery, art, and liturgy were not uniform. In the 12th and 13th centuries, more Germans arrived in Hungary, living in dispersed villages known asKönigsboden [de]. By the mid-13th century, their importance in trade (especially inPozsony,Pest andNagyszombat) and gold and silver mining (especially inBeszterce andRadna) grew significant.
When Stephen I marriedGisela of Bavaria, many German knights came to Hungary, joining its military. They were often rewarded with large estates and entry into the nobility.[52] In 1224,Andrew II signed a charter laying out the duties and rights of the Germans in the kingdom. The king defined their duties such as the payment of tax, military service, and housing of the king and his officials. In exchange, they were able to elect their priests and officials independently and their merchants were exempt from customs duties. Their markets were also not taxed. No outsider was allowed to receive villages or estates in German land where only the monarch and theCount of Hermannstadt had jurisdiction.[53]
Political and military events were greatly influenced by a massive population increase throughout Europe in the High Middle Ages. From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the population in the kingdom of Germany increased from about four to twelve million inhabitants.[54][55] During this time, the High MedievalLandesausbau (inland settlement) took place, when arable land was largely expanded at the expense of forested areas. Although new land was won and numerous settlements created, demands could not be absorbed.[56] Another factor was a surplus of offspring of the nobility who were not entitled to inheritance, but after the success of the first crusade, took their chances of acquiring new lands in the peripheral regions of the Empire.[9][57]
There is no doubt that there were "rather numerous German settlers" in Eastern Central who were responsible for bringing German law in the earliest stages of the colonization. Other settlers included Walloons, Jews, Dutch, Flemish, and later Poles, especially in the territory of modern Ukraine.[58]
The migration of theWalser in the territory of present-daySwitzerland to areas that had formerly been inhabited byRomans. TheWalser settlers left their homes inValais and founded villages in the uplands of the Alp valleys (in the north of Italy and in theGrisons).[59]
TheMedieval Warm Period, which began in the 11th century resulted in higher average temperatures in Central Europe.Additional technical progress in agriculture, for example through the construction of mills, Three-field farming and increased cultivation of grain (graining) led to general population increase.
The new settlers not only brought their customs and language with them, but also new technical skills and equipment that were adapted within a few decades, especially in agriculture and crafts.[60] These included:
The amount of cultivated land increased as large forested areas were cleared. The extent of land increase differed by region. In Silesia it had doubled (16% of the total area) by the beginning of the 11th century, 30% in the 16th century and the highest increase rates in the 14th century, the total area of arable land increased seven – to twentyfold in many Silesian regions during theOstsiedlung.
Parallel to agricultural innovations new forms of farm layout and settlement structuring (division and classification of land) were introduced. Farmland was divided intoHufen, (Englishhides) and larger villages replaced the previously dominant type of small villages consisting of four to eight farms asa complete transformation of the previous settlement structure occurred. The cultural landscape of East Central Europe formed by the medieval settlement processes essentially prevails until today.
Flemish and Dutch settlers were among the first to immigrate to Mecklenburg at the beginning of the 12th century. In the following years, they moved further east to Pomerania and Silesia and in the south to Hungary, motivated by the lack of settlement areas in their already largely developed home areas and several flood disasters and famines.[61]
Experienced and skilled hydraulic engineers, they were in high demand at the settlements of the as yet undeveloped areas east of the Elbe. The land was drained by creating a network-like structure of smaller drainage ditches that drained the water in main ditches. Roads connecting the settlers' individual farms ran along these main trenches.
Dutch settlers were recruited by the local rulers in large numbers, especially during the second half of the 12th century. In 1159/60, for example, Albert the Bear granted Dutch settlers the right to take possession of former Slavic settlements. The preacherHelmold of Bosau reported on this in his Slavic chronicle:"Finally, when the Slavs were gradually dispersing, he (Albrecht) sent to Utrecht and the Rhine region, and also to those who live by the ocean, who under the power of the sea had suffered, the Dutch, Zealanders and Flemings, where he attracted a lot of people and let them live in the castles and villages of the Slavs."[61]
The Slavs used ploughs and agricultural implements before the arrival of German settlers. The oldest meaningful reference to this can be found in a Slavic chronicle, in which the use of a plough as an areal measurement is mentioned. Although heavier and useful ploughs were brought by the settlers.[b][63]
In the 12th and 13th century documents, theArd without a mouldboard is mentioned. It tear opens the soil and spreads the soil to both sides without turning it. It is therefore particularly suitable for light and sandy subsoil. In the mid 13th century, theThree-field system was introduced east of the Elbe. This new cultivation method required the use of the heavy mouldboard plough that digs up the earth deeply and turns it around in a single operation.[c]
The different modes of operation of the two devices also had an impact on the shape and size of the cultivation areas. The fields worked with the ard had about the same field length and width and a square base. Long fields with a rectangular base were much more suitable for the mouldboard plough, as the heavy implements had to be turned less often. Planting and cultivation of oats and rye was promoted, and soon these cereals became the most important type of grain. Farmers who used mouldboard ploughs were required to pay double tax fees.[64]
Potters were among the first group of artisans who also settled in the rural areas. Typical Slavic ceramics were the Flat-bottom vessels. With the influx of western settlers, new vessel shapes such as the rounded jar were introduced, inclusive hard-fired processes, that improved ceramics quality. This type of ceramics, known asHard Grayware, became widespread east of the Elbe by the end of the 12th century. It was manufactured extensively in Pomerania by the 13th century, when more advanced manufacturing methods, such as the tunnel kiln, enabled the mass production of ceramic household goods. The demand for household goods such as pots, jugs, jugs and bowls, which had previously been made of wood, increased steadily and promoted the development of new sales markets.
During the 13th century, glazed ceramics were introduced and the import of stoneware increased. The transfer of technology and knowledge affected the way of life of old and new settlers in a variety of ways and, in addition to innovations in agriculture and handicrafts, also included other areas, such as weapons technology, documents and coins.[65]
The Slavic population (Sorbs), who lived east of the Elbe, primarily built log houses, which had proven suitable for the regional climates and wood was plentiful in the continental regions. The German settlers, mainly from Franconia and Thuringia, who advanced into the area in the 13th century, brought with them the half-timbering style, which was already known to the Germanic peoples, as a wood-saving, solid and stable construction method that allowed multistory buildings. A combination of the two construction methods was difficult because the horizontally stacked wood of the log room expands differently in height than the vertical posts of the framework. The result was the new type of half-timbered house with a timber frame around the ground floor block, capable to support a second floor, which was made of half-timber (Upper Lusatian house). Today the so-called "Umgebindeland" includes the Upper Lusation houses in the region ofLower Silesia and Lusatia.
TheOstsiedlung followed an immediate rapidpopulation growth throughoutCentral and Eastern Europe. During the 12th and 13th centuries, thepopulation density increased considerably. The increase was due to the influx of settlers on the one hand and an increase in Slavic populations after the settlement on the other hand. Settlement was the primary reason for the increase e.g. in the areas east of the Oder, theDuchy of Pomerania, westernGreater Poland,Silesia, Austria,Moravia,Prussia andTransylvania, while in the larger part of Central and Eastern Europe indigenous populations were responsible for the growth. Author Piskorski wrote that"insofar as it is possible to draw conclusions from the less than rich medieval source material, it appears that at least in some East Central European territories the population increased significantly. It is however possible to contest to what extent this was a direct result of migration and how far it was due to increased agricultural productivity and the gathering pace of urbanization."[66] In contrast toWestern Europe, this increased population was largely spared by the 14th-centuryBlack Deathpandemic.[67]
With the German settlers new systems oftaxation arrived. While the existing Wendishtithe was a fixed tax depending on village size, the German tithe depended on the actual crop yield. Thus higher taxes were collected from the settlers than from the Wends, although settlers were partly exempted from tax payments during the first years after settlement establishment.[60][9]
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The development ofGermania Slavica was also associated with the establishment of towns. There already existed Slavic castle towns, in which merchant quarters formed suburbs at fortified strongholds (grads). Wendish-Scandinavian merchants founded manufacturing and trading settlements (emporia) at the Baltic coast. Large cities includedSzczecin (Stettin) which reached 9,000 inhabitants,Kraków andWrocław (Breslau), major cities and centers of power of medieval Poland. However, they experienced substantial growth since the end of the 12th century through new settlers and expansion (locatio civitatis). The foundation of a bishopric, for example inHavelberg, would lead to the development of a town, although cities were also founded out of nowhere, such asNeubrandenburg. Characteristic of the founding cities are geometrical or rasterized floor plans with main streets, intersecting axes and a central market place. Different settlement phases are reflected in twin cities names such asNew town orOld town.[70][71]
The towns established during theOstsiedlung wereFree Towns (civitates liberae) or called "New Towns" by its contemporaries. The rapid increase in the number of towns led to an "urbanization of East Central Europe". The new towns differed from their predecessors in:
The granting of city rights played an important role in attracting German settlers.[75] The town charter privileged the new residents and existing suburban settlements with a market were given formal town charter and then rebuilt or expanded. Even small settlements inhabited by native people would eventually be granted these new rights. Regardless of existing suburban settlements, locators were commissioned to establish completely new cities, as the goal was to attract as many people as possible in order to create new, flourishing population centers.[76][77]
Among the many different German city laws, theMagdeburg law and theLübeck law played the greatest role in the new settlements as they served, often in more or less modified form, as models for most cities. Other city rights that were of regional importance include the Nuremberg law, the Mecklenburg law and the Iglau law. The Lübeck law of 1188 served in the 13th and 14th centuries as the model for around 100 cities in the entire Baltic Sea trading area. Around 350,000 people lived under Lübeck law in the early 15th century. The Magdeburg law, which has its origins in the privileges granted by ArchbishopWichmann of Magdeburg, first spread into Brandenburg, Saxony and Lusatia. Laws based on the Magdeburg model (for example theKulm/Chełmno law andNeumarkt/Środa law) were introduced in Poland, including Silesia, the State of the Teutonic Order, Bohemia and Moravia and beyond.
The pagan Wends had been the target of Christianization attempts before the beginning of the Ostsiedlung, since the government of emperor Otto I and the establishment of dioceses east of the Elbe. The Slav uprising of 983 put an end to these efforts for almost 200 years. In contrast to the Czechs and Poles who had been Christianized before the turn of the millennium, the conversion attempts of the Elbe Slavs were initially accompanied by violence. The arrival of new settlers from around 1150 on led to a civil Christianization of the areas between the Elbe and Oder. The new settlers first built wooden and later field stone parish churches in their villages. Some places of worship, such as the St. Mary in Brandenburg, and theLehnin Abbey, were built on pagan shrines. TheCistercians, who had been assigned a prominent role by church authorities, combined the spread of faith and settlement development. Their monasteries with extensive international connections played a vital role in the development of the communities.[78]
The majority of the settlers were Germans of the Holy Roman Empire. Significant numbers ofDutch settlers participated, particularly in the early12th century in the area surrounding the Middle Elbe River.[79] To a lesser extent Danes,Scots or localWends and (French-speaking) Walloons participated as well. Among the settlers were landless children of noble families who could not inherit property.[80]
Besides the marches, adjacent to the Empire, Germans settled in areas farther east, such as theCarpathians,Transylvania, and along theGulf of Riga. Settlers were invited by local secular rulers, such as dukes, counts, margraves, princes and (only in a few cases due to the weakening central power) the king. The sovereigns in East Central Europe owned large territories, of which only small portions were arable, which generated very little income.[57] The lords offered considerable privileges to new settlers from the Empire. Starting in the border marks, the princes invited people from the Empire by granting them land ownership and improved legal status, binding duties and the inheritance of the farm. The landowners eventually benefited from these rather generous conditions for the farmers, and generated income from the land that had previously been fallow.[80]
Most sovereigns transferred the specific recruitment of settlers, the distribution of the land and the establishment of the settlements to so-calledLokators (allocator of land). These men, who usually came from the lower nobility or the urban bourgeoisie, organized the settlement trains, that included advertising, equipment and transport, land clearing and preparation of the settlements.Locator contracts settled rights and obligations of the locators and the new settlers.[71][81]
Towns were founded and grantedGerman town law. The agricultural, legal, administrative, and technical methods of the immigrants, as well as their successful Christianization of the native inhabitants, led to a gradual transformation of the settlement areas, as Slavic communities adopted German culture.[citation needed] German cultural and linguistic influence lasted in some of these areas right up to the present day.[1]
In the mid 14th century, the migration process slowed considerably as a result of theBlack Death. The population probably decreased by that time and economically marginal settlements were left, in particular at the coast of Pomerania and Western Prussia. Only a century later, local Slavic leaders ofPomerania, Western Prussia and Silesia invited German settlers again.[82]
Settlement was the pretext for assimilation processes that lasted centuries. Assimilation occurred in both directions – depending on the region and the majority population, Slavic and German settlers mutually assimilated each other.
ThePolonization process of German settlers inKraków andPoznań lasted about two centuries. The community could only continue its isolated position with a continuation of newcomers from German lands. TheSorbs also assimilated German settlers, yet at the same time, small Sorbic communities were themselves assimilated by the surrounding German-speaking population. Many Central andEastern European towns developed into multi-ethnicmelting pots.[83]
Although Slavic population density was generally not very high compared to theEmpire and had, as a result of the extensive warfare during the 10th to 12th centuries, even further declined, some settlement centers maintained their Wendish populations to varying degrees, resisting assimilation for a long time.[83]
In the territories ofPomerania and Silesia, German migrants did not settle in the old Slavic/Polish villages and set up new ones on grounds allotted to them by the Slavic/Polish dukes and the monastic clergy. In the marches west of the Oder, the Wends were occasionally driven out and the villages rebuilt by settlers. The new villages would nevertheless keep their former Slavic names. In the case of the village Böbelin in Mecklenburg, the evicted Wendish inhabitants repeatedly invaded their former village, hindering a resettlement.[84]
In the Sorbian March the situation was again different as the area and in particular Upper Lusatia is situated close toBohemia, ruled by a Slavic dynasty, a loyal and powerful duchy of the Empire. In this environment, German feudal lords often cooperated with the Slavic inhabitants.Wiprecht of Groitzsch, a prominent figure during the early German migration period only acquired local power through the marriage to a Slavic noblewoman and the support of the Bohemian king. German-Slavic relations were generally good, while relations between Slavic-governed Bohemia and Slavic-governed Poland were marred by constant struggle.
Discrimination against the Wends was not a part of the general concept of theOstsiedlung. Rather, the Wends were subject to a low taxation mode and thus not as profitable as new settlers. Even though the majority of the settlers were Germans (Franks andBavarians in the South, andSaxons andFlemings in the North), Wends and other tribes also participated in the settlement. New settlers were not chosen just because of their ethnicity, a concept unknown in the Middle Ages, but because of their manpower and agricultural and technical know-how.[83]
Most of the Wends were gradually assimilated. However, in isolated rural areas where Wends constituted a substantial part of the population, they continued their culture. These were theDrevaniPolabians of the Wendland east of theLüneburg Heath, theJabelheide Drevani of southernMecklenburg, theSlovincians andKashubs of EasternPomerania, and theSorbs ofLusatia. Lusatia was inhabited by a large population of Sorbs until the end of the 19th century as linguistic assimilation occurred in a relatively short time.
The Ostsiedlung caused the adoption of loan words, foreign words and loan translations among the German and the Slavic languages. Direct contact between Germans and Slavs caused direct language exchange of language elements due to the bilingualism of people or the spatial proximity of the speakers of the respective language. Remote contact took place during trade travels or political embassies.[85][86]
The oldest adoption of naming units dates back toProto-Germanic andProto-Slavic. The original Slavic word*kъnędzъ can be found in almost all Slavic languages. German was mainly used to convey words in Slavic languages that related to handicraft, politics, agriculture and nutrition. This includesOld High Germancihla,Middle High Germanziegala,ziegel (brick), that resulted from the sound shift of the Latintegula. An example of borrowing from Slavic into Germanic usage is the word forborder. In Middle High German calledGrenize, which is a borrowing of the old Czech wordgranicĕ or the Polish wordgranica. City names are also affected by language exchange, sound shifting and theSlavic second palatalization. The city ofRegensburg is calledŘezno in Czech and*Rezъno inProto-Slavic. Due to the intensive language contact, idioms were also transmitted. Two examples from Czech and Polish arena vlastní pěst /na własną rękę ('on your own') orozbrojený po zuby /uzbrojony po zęby ('armed to the teeth'), in Hungariansaját szakállára ('one's own beard') andállig felfegyverzett ('armed to the chin'), with different wording, but with the same meaning.[87][88]
| Category | English | German | Polish | Czech | Slovakian | Hungarian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Administration | mayor | Bürgermeister | burmistrz | purkmistr | richtár[d] /burgmajster | polgármester |
| Administration | margrave | Markgraf | margrabia | markrabě | markgróf | őrgróf |
| Craft | brick | Ziegel | cegła | cihla | tehla | tégla |
| Food | pretzel | Brezel | precel | preclík | praclík | perec |
| Food | oil | Öl | olej | olej | olej | olaj |
| Agriculture | mill | Mühle | młyn | mlýn | mlyn | malom (mahlen) |
| Trade | (cart-)load | Fuhre | fura | fůra | fúra | furik |
| Others | flute | Flöte | flet | flétna | flauta | flóta |
As Slavic and Wendish locality names were widely adopted, they represent, in adapted and further developed form, a very high proportion of East German toponyms and place names. These are recognizable at word endings, such as-ow (Germanized-au, as in Spandau),-vitz or-witz and sometimes-in. Newly created villages were given German names that ended, for example, with-dorf or-hagen in the North, and-rode or-hain in the South. The name of the settler's place of origin (example: Lichtervelde in Flanders) could also become part of the place name. If a German settlement was founded alongside a Wendish settlement, the name of theWendendorf could also be adopted for the German village, the distinction was then made through additions (for example:Klein- orWendisch- /Windisch- for Wendendorf,Groß- orDeutsch- for German).[74][89]
In German-speaking areas most inheritedsurnames were formed only after theOstsiedlung period, and manyGerman surnames are in fact Germanized Wendish placenames.[citation needed]
The former ethnic variety of German (Deutsch-) and Slavic (Wendisch-,Böhmisch-,Polnisch-) toponyms was discontinued by the Eastern European republics after World War II. Villages and towns were renamed in Slavic only. Memory of the history of German settlement was no longer appreciated.[citation needed]
It's estimated that approximately 25% of all German family names are of Slavic origin,[90][91] most of these are Polish.
| Name | Origin and meaning |
|---|---|
| Nowak | Slavic,now-/nov- ‘new’ (German:Neu) +-ak means "New settlers" (German:Neuansiedler |
| Noack | Sorbian, nowy ‘new’ (German:Neu) +-ak means "New settlers" (German:Neuansiedler) |
| Kretschmer | Czech,krčmář means "Publican" |
| Mielke | Slavic, nickname withmil- "love, dear" (German:Lieb, Teuer) + -ek |
| Stenzel | Polish nicknameStanisław |
| Kaminski | Polish, settlement name-kamień "Stone" (German:Stein) +-ski |
| Wieczorek | Polish,wieczor "evening" (German:Abend) +-ek |
| Kowalski | Polish, settlement name orkowal "Blacksmith" (German:Schmied) +-ski |
| Grabowski | Polish, settlement name +-ski |
| Jankowski | Polish, settlement or the nicknameJanek +-ow +-ski |
There is no clear cause nor a definite end point in time of the Ostsiedlung. However, a slowdown in the settlement movement can be observed after the year 1300 and in the 14th century only a few new settlements with the participation of German-speaking settlers were founded. An explanation for the end of the Ostsiedlung must include various factors without being able to clearly weigh or differentiate between them. The deterioration of the climate from around 1300 as the beginning of the "Little Ice Age", the agricultural crisis that began in the mid 14th century. In the wake of the demographic slump caused by the 1347 Plague, profound devastation processes have taken place. If a clear connection could be established here, the end of theOstsiedlung would be understood as part of the crisis of the 14th century.[93]
In the 19th century, recognition of Germanization of Slavic and eastern lands coupled with the rise ofnationalism. In Germany and some Slavic countries, most notably Poland, theOstsiedlung was perceived in nationalist circles as a prelude to contemporary expansionism andGermanization efforts, the slogan used for this perception wasDrang nach Osten (Drive or Push to the East).[94][95]
The 20th century wars and nationalist policies severely altered the ethnic and cultural composition of Central and Eastern Europe. AfterWorld War I, Germans inreconstituted Poland were set under pressure to leave thePolish Corridor, the eastern part ofUpper Silesia andPoznań. DuringWorld War II, theNazis initiated theNazi-Soviet population transfers, wiping out the old settlement areas of theBaltic Germans, the Germans in Bessarabia and others, to resettle them in the future territories in occupied Poland.
DuringWorld War II, theGeneralplan Ost was launched with the aim of exterminating or enslaving Poles and other Slavs,[96][97] according to the Nazis'Lebensraum concept. In order to press the territorial claims of Germany and to demonstrate supposed German superiority over non-Germanic peoples, the latter's cultural, urban and scientific achievements in that era were undermined, rejected, or presented as German.[11][12][13] While further realization of this mega plan, aiming at a total reconstitution of Central and Eastern Europe as a German colony, was prevented by the war's turn, the beginning of theexpulsion of 2 million Poles and settlement ofVolksdeutsche in the annexed territories yet was implied by 1944.[98][clarification needed]
ThePotsdam Conference – the meeting between the leaders of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union –sanctioned theexpulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia,Poland andHungary. With theRed Army's advance andNazi Germany's defeat in 1945, the ethnic make-up of Central andEastern andEast Central Europe was radically changed, as nearly allGermans were expelled not only from all Soviet conquered German settlement areas across Central and Eastern Europe, but also fromformer territories of the Reich east of theOder-Neisse line, especially the provinces of Silesia,East Prussia,East Brandenburg, andPomerania. TheSoviet-establishedPeople's Republic of Poland annexed the majority of the lands, while the northern half ofEast Prussia was taken by the Soviets, becoming theKaliningrad Oblast, an exclave of theRussian SFSR. The former German settlement areas were resettled by ethnic citizens of the respective succeeding state (Czechs in the formerSudetenland and Poles in Silesia and Pomerania). However, some areas that were settled and Germanized in the course of theOstsiedlung still form the northeastern part of modern Germany, such as theBundesländer ofMecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg,Saxony and east of thelimes Saxoniae inHolstein (part ofSchleswig-Holstein).[99][100]
The areas that were settled in the Middle Ages and later came to constitute the Eastern provinces of theGerman Empire andAustria were inhabited by an estimated 30 million Germans at beginning of 20th century. The westward withdrawal of political boundaries of Germany, first in 1919, but substantially in 1945, was followed by the removal of some 15 million people to resettle within borders of present-day Germany. Only the areas that were settled as far back as the 12th (and partially 13th) century remained German in language and culture and stayed part of post-1945Eastern Germany andAustria.[100]
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